Q. Explain the differences between the Social Contract theory and Marxian theory of the origin of the State.
The differences between
the Social Contract theory and Marxian theory of the origin of the state lie in
their fundamental perspectives on human nature, society, and political power.
Both theories attempt to explain the emergence of the state, but they do so
from radically different premises. The Social Contract theory, traditionally
associated with thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, views the state as a product of an agreement among individuals to
escape the anarchy and chaos of the state of nature. On the other hand, the
Marxian theory, based on the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, posits
that the state is a product of class struggle, emerging to serve the interests
of the ruling class. This distinction in perspectives leads to divergent views
on the nature of the state, its legitimacy, and its role in society.
1. The Social Contract Theory
The Social Contract
theory is a foundational concept in Western political thought, particularly in
the context of the Enlightenment period. It seeks to explain the legitimacy of
political authority and the origin of the state by positing that individuals
voluntarily consent to form a state in order to overcome the disadvantages of
living in a "state of nature."
a) Hobbes' View: The Leviathan and the
State of Nature
One of the earliest and
most influential proponents of the Social Contract theory was Thomas Hobbes,
who, in his seminal work Leviathan (1651), argued that the state of nature was
a condition of complete anarchy and constant conflict. According to Hobbes, in
the state of nature, individuals had the freedom to do anything they wished to
satisfy their desires, but this led to insecurity, fear, and violence. Without
a central authority to impose order, life in the state of nature was
"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
To escape this chaotic
condition, individuals entered into a social contract, surrendering their
natural rights to a sovereign authority in exchange for protection and
security. The social contract, according to Hobbes, required individuals to
give up all their rights to the sovereign, who would then have absolute power
to maintain peace and prevent violence. The sovereign, a "Leviathan,"
would be above the law, and its primary role would be to enforce order and
ensure the survival of society. Hobbes believed that this absolute authority
was necessary to prevent the breakdown of society into anarchy.
b) Locke’s View: Natural Rights and
Limited Government
John Locke, in contrast
to Hobbes, had a more optimistic view of human nature and the state of nature.
In his Two Treatises of Government (1689), Locke argued that individuals in the
state of nature were generally rational and peaceful but that the lack of an
impartial authority to resolve disputes could lead to conflict. Locke believed
that individuals had natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that
the primary function of government was to protect these rights.
Unlike Hobbes, Locke
argued that the social contract did not require individuals to surrender all
their rights to a sovereign. Instead, individuals retained their natural rights
and only consented to the establishment of a government that would protect these
rights. In Locke’s view, the state should be a limited government, bound by the
rule of law and accountable to the people. If the government failed to protect
the rights of individuals or violated the social contract, Locke argued that
the people had the right to revolt and replace it.
c) Rousseau’s View: The General Will and
Popular Sovereignty
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in
his work The Social Contract (1762), developed a more radical and democratic
interpretation of the social contract. Rousseau’s concept of the state of
nature was different from both Hobbes and Locke. He believed that in the state
of nature, humans were peaceful, free, and lived in harmony with nature.
However, the advent of private property led to inequality, competition, and
conflict, eventually necessitating the creation of a political society.
Rousseau argued that
individuals in society could overcome the inequality and corruption caused by
private property through a collective social contract based on the
"general will." The general will represented the collective will of
the people, aiming for the common good. In Rousseau’s view, the state was not
an entity separate from society, but rather a manifestation of the collective
will of the people. The social contract, therefore, required individuals to
subordinate their personal interests to the common good, creating a direct form
of democracy in which the people themselves were the sovereign. Rousseau’s
ideas have influenced democratic political theory and the notion of popular
sovereignty, where the authority of the state derives from the consent of the
governed.
2. The Marxian Theory of the Origin of the
State
In stark contrast to the
Social Contract theory, Marxian theory views the state as a product of class
struggle, an institution that arises to serve the interests of the ruling
class. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels developed this perspective in their critique
of capitalism and their historical materialist understanding of society.
a) The State as an Instrument of Class
Domination
For Marx, the state is
not a neutral arbiter or a voluntary agreement between individuals, but rather
an instrument of class domination. In The Communist Manifesto (1848), Marx and
Engels argued that the history of all societies is the history of class
struggle. In every historical period, a ruling class has emerged that controls
the means of production and uses the state to enforce its interests and
maintain its dominance. Marx’s analysis focused on the economic foundations of
society, which he believed determined the political and legal superstructure,
including the state.
According to Marx, the
state first emerged in ancient societies as a means to protect the private
property of the ruling class. In feudalism, the state served the interests of
the feudal lords, while in capitalism, the state serves the interests of the bourgeoisie,
the capitalist class that owns the means of production. The state, in Marx’s
view, is not a neutral or benevolent institution but rather a tool of
oppression, used by the ruling class to maintain its economic and political
power.
b) The Role of the State in Capitalist
Society
In capitalist society,
Marx argued that the state functions to maintain the economic system of private
property, wage labor, and capitalist exploitation. The state enacts laws that
protect the interests of capitalists, regulates labor relations, and suppresses
working-class movements. For Marx, the state is not a product of a social
contract, but a reflection of the material conditions and class relations that
define the structure of society.
Marx also argued that the
state’s role is to mediate between the competing interests of different classes
but ultimately serves the interests of the bourgeoisie. This is evident in the
way the state upholds laws that protect private property, enforces contracts,
and maintains social order to prevent uprisings or challenges to the capitalist
system. Marx believed that the state’s role in capitalist societies was
inherently repressive, and it could not be relied upon to bring about real
social change.
c) The End of the State: Revolution and
the Dictatorship of the Proletariat
For Marx, the state would
eventually become obsolete. He argued that the working class, the proletariat,
would eventually rise up against the capitalist class in a revolutionary
struggle. In the aftermath of this revolution, the proletariat would establish
a "dictatorship of the proletariat," a temporary state that would
abolish private property and the class system. During this phase, the state
would be used to suppress the remnants of the bourgeoisie and reorganize
society along socialist lines.
Marx envisioned the
eventual withering away of the state as the proletariat abolished class
distinctions and established a classless, stateless society. In this utopian
vision, there would be no need for a state because the conditions of
exploitation and class struggle would cease to exist. The state, as a tool of
oppression, would no longer be necessary, and society would be governed by the
principles of socialism and communism, with collective ownership of the means
of production and distribution.
3. Key Differences Between Social Contract
Theory and Marxian Theory
The key differences
between the Social Contract theory and Marxian theory of the origin of the
state are grounded in their respective views on human nature, the role of the
state, and the basis of political power.
a) View of Human Nature
The Social Contract
theorists, particularly Hobbes and Locke, start from a view of human nature
that is often seen as individualistic and self-interested. For Hobbes,
individuals in the state of nature are driven by fear and self-preservation,
leading to a chaotic environment in which life is "solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short." Locke, on the other hand, had a more optimistic view,
seeing individuals as generally rational and capable of living in relative
peace but in need of a system to resolve disputes. Rousseau, while emphasizing
the corrupting influence of private property, still maintained that humans in
their natural state were free and equal.
In contrast, Marx had a
materialist view of human nature, arguing that individuals are shaped by the
economic conditions and class relations of the society they live in. For Marx,
the state is not a product of individuals’ rational choice to escape the state
of nature but rather a product of class conflict and material interests.
b) Role and Nature of the State
In the Social Contract
tradition, the state is viewed as a necessary institution to ensure order,
security, and the protection of individual rights. Hobbes sees the state as a
powerful, centralized authority, while Locke advocates for a limited government
that protects natural rights. Rousseau emphasizes popular sovereignty and the
general will as the foundation of political authority.
In contrast, Marx views
the state as an instrument of class domination, created to serve the interests
of the ruling class. For Marx, the state is inherently repressive and serves to
maintain the existing social order, whether in feudal, capitalist, or other
systems. The Marxian theory sees the state as a temporary institution that will
eventually fade away after the revolution, once class distinctions are
abolished.
c) Legitimacy and Consent
In the Social Contract
theory, the legitimacy of the state derives from the consent of the governed.
Individuals enter into a contract, either explicitly or implicitly, to form a
government that protects their rights and promotes the common good. This idea
of consent is central to the legitimacy of political authority in liberal
democratic thought.
Marx, however, rejects
the notion of consent as a basis for the legitimacy of the state. For him, the
state is a product of material conditions and class interests, not the result
of a voluntary agreement among individuals. The legitimacy of the state is not
based on consent but on its function as an instrument of class domination.
Conclusion
The Social Contract
theory and the Marxian theory offer fundamentally different explanations for
the origin of the state. The Social Contract theorists view the state as a
product of rational agreement among individuals seeking to escape the chaos of
the state of nature, while the Marxian theory sees the state as an institution
created by class struggle to serve the interests of the ruling class. These
differences reflect broader philosophical divides over the nature of human
society, the role of the state, and the legitimacy of political power. While
the Social Contract theory has shaped the development of liberal political
thought and democratic governance, the Marxian theory has influenced socialist
and communist movements that seek to challenge and eventually abolish the state
as a tool of class oppression. Both theories, despite their differences, offer
valuable insights into the complex nature of political authority and the
origins of the state.
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