Free IGNOU MSW-013 Answer Material 2025-26
1) Define psychology. Explain nature and various methods of
psychology.
Psychology
is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. It is a multifaceted
discipline that seeks to understand individuals and groups through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. The term 'psychology' originates from the Greek
words ‘psyche’ meaning soul or mind, and ‘logos’ meaning study. Thus,
psychology literally refers to the study of the mind, although in modern times,
it encompasses both mental processes and observable behaviour. Psychology
bridges natural sciences, social sciences, and applied fields, providing
insights into perception, cognition, emotions, motivation, personality,
development, and social interaction. Psychologists study both normal and
abnormal behaviour to understand the functioning of humans in various contexts.
1.
Nature of Psychology
The
nature of psychology can be understood through several dimensions:
1.1 Science of Behaviour
Psychology is a science that systematically studies observable behaviour.
Behaviour refers to all actions, responses, and activities of an organism,
including verbal and non-verbal actions. For instance, learning patterns,
emotional responses, and social interactions are considered behavioural
phenomena.
1.2 Science of Mental Processes
Psychology also studies mental processes such as thinking, memory,
problem-solving, perception, emotions, and decision-making. Mental processes
are not directly observable, but their effects can be inferred from behaviour,
physiological measures, and self-reports.
1.3 Systematic and Objective
Approach
Psychology uses systematic and empirical methods to collect data, test
hypotheses, and draw conclusions. Objectivity is maintained through careful
observation, controlled experiments, and standardised measurement techniques to
reduce bias.
1.4 Interdisciplinary Nature
Psychology overlaps with other disciplines such as biology, sociology,
anthropology, education, and medicine. For example, neuropsychology combines
neuroscience and psychology to study brain-behaviour relationships.
1.5 Applied and Theoretical
Dimensions
Psychology has both theoretical aspects, which focus on understanding
principles of human behaviour, and applied aspects, which aim to solve
practical problems in education, health, industry, and social settings. For
example, clinical psychology applies psychological knowledge to treat mental
illness, while educational psychology improves teaching-learning processes.
1.6 Dynamic and Adaptive Nature
Psychology recognises that human behaviour and mental processes are dynamic,
changing with experiences, environment, and development. For instance,
children’s cognitive abilities evolve over time due to maturation and learning
experiences.
2. Methods of Psychology
Psychologists employ various methods to study behaviour and mental processes.
These methods can be broadly classified into observational, experimental, and
applied techniques.
2.1 Experimental Method
The experimental method involves manipulating one or more variables to observe
their effect on behaviour. It helps establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Experiments are conducted in controlled laboratory settings to minimise
extraneous factors. For example, Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment
with dogs studied the association between stimuli and responses.
2.2 Observational Method
Observation involves systematically watching and recording behaviour as it
occurs naturally. Observational studies can be either naturalistic or
controlled. Naturalistic observation examines behaviour in real-life settings,
such as children playing in a playground. Controlled observation occurs in
structured settings, like a lab, to measure specific behaviours.
2.3 Case Study Method
The case study method involves an in-depth analysis of an individual or group
over a period of time. It is particularly useful in clinical and developmental
psychology. For example, Sigmund Freud’s studies of patients with neuroses
provided insights into psychodynamic theory.
2.4 Survey Method
Surveys involve collecting data from a large sample through questionnaires,
interviews, or structured forms. Surveys help gather information on attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviours in a population. For instance, surveys on mental health
prevalence or stress levels in students provide quantitative data for research.
2.5 Correlational Method
The correlational method examines the relationship between two or more
variables without manipulating them. Correlation coefficients indicate the
strength and direction of associations. For example, studying the correlation
between sleep duration and academic performance helps identify patterns without
experimental intervention.
2.6 Longitudinal and
Cross-Sectional Methods
Longitudinal studies follow the same subjects over a long period to observe
developmental changes. Cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at
a single point in time to identify patterns of development. Both methods are
widely used in developmental psychology.
2.7 Psycho-Physiological Methods
These methods study the relationship between physiological processes and
behaviour, including brain imaging, EEG, heart rate monitoring, and hormone
assays. For example, functional MRI is used to study brain activation during
cognitive tasks.
2.8 Projective Techniques
Projective techniques, such as the Rorschach inkblot test or Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT), assess unconscious motives, emotions, and personality
traits. These methods are commonly used in clinical and personality assessment.
2.9 Comparative Method
The comparative method studies similarities and differences between humans and
other animals to understand evolutionary and biological bases of behaviour. For
instance, animal learning experiments help understand conditioning and
cognitive processes.
2.10 Advantages of Scientific
Methods in Psychology
Scientific methods in psychology provide reliability, validity, and
objectivity. They enable replication of results, systematic analysis, and
development of theories that can be applied to improve human welfare.
In
conclusion, psychology is a scientific discipline dedicated to understanding
behaviour and mental processes. Its nature is both theoretical and applied,
encompassing biological, social, and cultural perspectives. Various methods,
including experimental, observational, survey, and case study techniques, allow
psychologists to study human behaviour comprehensively. The integration of
these methods provides a holistic understanding of individuals and groups, supporting
interventions in health, education, and social welfare.
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2) Describe the concept of abnormality. Explain classification
of mental illness.
Abnormality
refers to patterns of behaviour, thinking, or emotions that deviate from social
norms, cause distress, or impair functioning. The study of abnormality forms
the basis of clinical psychology and psychiatry, helping professionals
identify, diagnose, and treat mental disorders. Understanding abnormality is
essential for promoting mental health, preventing maladaptive behaviour, and
supporting individuals with psychological disorders.
1.
Concept of Abnormality
Abnormality
is defined as behaviour or mental processes that are statistically rare,
violate social norms, cause subjective distress, or interfere with daily
functioning. It is context-dependent, as behaviour considered abnormal in one
culture or situation may be normal in another. For example, grief is normal
after loss but persistent, severe depression may be abnormal.
1.1 Criteria for Defining Abnormality
Several criteria are used to identify abnormal behaviour:
1.1.1 Statistical Deviation
Behaviour that is rare or statistically unusual in the population may be
considered abnormal. For example, extremely high or low intelligence is
statistically rare but not necessarily maladaptive.
1.1.2 Violation of Social Norms
Behaviour that significantly deviates from societal expectations may be deemed
abnormal. For example, aggressive or antisocial behaviour that harms others is
socially unacceptable.
1.1.3 Personal Distress
Individuals experiencing anxiety, depression, or emotional suffering beyond
typical levels may be considered abnormal. Personal distress emphasizes
subjective discomfort.
1.1.4 Maladaptiveness
Behaviour that interferes with daily functioning, social interaction, or
occupational performance is considered abnormal. For example, severe phobias
that prevent leaving home impact adaptive functioning.
1.1.5 Danger to Self or Others
Behaviour posing risk of harm to oneself or others, such as suicidal attempts
or violent acts, is considered abnormal. This criterion often guides urgent
intervention.
2. Classification of Mental Illness
Classification of mental illness involves categorising disorders based on
symptoms, causes, duration, and severity. It helps clinicians in diagnosis,
treatment planning, and research.
2.1 Historical Perspectives
Early classifications included descriptive categories based on observable
behaviour and moral deviations. Hippocrates classified mental disorders into
mania, melancholia, and phrenitis. Later, Emil Kraepelin introduced systematic
classification based on clinical observation and course of illness, which
influenced modern psychiatric classification.
2.2
DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
The DSM, published by the American Psychiatric Association, provides a
standardised system for diagnosing mental disorders. It classifies mental
illness into categories such as mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic
disorders, and personality disorders.
2.3
ICD (International Classification of Diseases)
The
ICD, published by the World Health Organization, includes a section on mental
and behavioural disorders, used internationally for diagnosis, epidemiological
research, and policy planning.
2.4
Major Categories of Mental Illness
2.4.1 Neurotic Disorders
These disorders involve anxiety, emotional distress, and maladaptive coping,
without loss of reality testing. Examples include generalized anxiety disorder,
phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression.
2.4.2 Psychotic Disorders
Psychotic disorders involve severe disturbances in thought, perception, and
reality testing. Schizophrenia is a primary example, characterised by
hallucinations, delusions, and disorganised behaviour.
2.4.3 Mood Disorders
Mood disorders involve disturbances in emotional states, including depression,
bipolar disorder, and dysthymia. These disorders affect cognition, behaviour,
and functioning.
2.4.4 Personality Disorders
Personality disorders involve enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and
behaving that deviate from cultural expectations. Examples include borderline
personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive
personality disorder.
2.4.5 Developmental Disorders
These disorders manifest during childhood and affect cognitive, social, and
emotional development. Examples include autism spectrum disorder, intellectual
disability, and learning disorders.
2.4.6 Substance-Related Disorders
These disorders involve misuse of alcohol, drugs, or other substances, leading
to psychological, social, and physical problems. Examples include alcohol
dependence, drug addiction, and substance-induced psychosis.
2.4.7 Somatoform and Dissociative
Disorders
Somatoform disorders involve physical symptoms without identifiable medical
causes, while dissociative disorders involve disruptions in identity, memory,
or consciousness. Examples include conversion disorder and dissociative
identity disorder.
2.4.8 Organic Mental Disorders
These disorders are caused by brain damage or disease, such as dementia,
delirium, or traumatic brain injury. Cognitive impairment and behavioural
changes are prominent features.
3. Importance of Classification
Classification facilitates accurate diagnosis, treatment planning, research, and
communication among mental health professionals. It also aids in policy-making,
epidemiological studies, and public awareness campaigns.
4. Cultural and Contextual
Considerations
Mental illness classification must consider cultural norms, beliefs, and societal
expectations, as perceptions of abnormality vary across cultures. For example,
spiritual experiences may be considered normal in one culture but pathological
in another.
In
conclusion, abnormality refers to deviations from social, emotional, and functional
norms, often causing distress or maladaptive behaviour. Classification of
mental illness provides a structured framework for understanding, diagnosing,
and treating mental disorders. Modern systems such as DSM and ICD integrate
clinical, behavioural, and cultural factors to guide mental health practice
effectively.
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3)
Answer any two of the following questions in about 300 words each:
a) Explain the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy.
Rational
Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a form of cognitive-behavioral therapy
developed by Albert Ellis in the 1950s. It is a structured, action-oriented
approach that focuses on identifying and altering irrational beliefs, which are
considered the root cause of emotional and behavioral problems. Unlike
therapies that emphasize the past, REBT emphasizes the present and teaches
clients how to challenge and replace self-defeating thoughts with rational
alternatives.
Core
Principles of REBT
REBT
is based on the concept that it is not events themselves that disturb individuals,
but their beliefs about those events. Ellis proposed the ABC model to explain
the process of emotional disturbance:
- A – Activating
Event: The external event or
situation that triggers a response.
- B – Beliefs:
The irrational or rational beliefs about the event. Irrational beliefs are
rigid, absolute, and unrealistic, often expressed in terms such as “must,”
“should,” or “have to.”
- C – Consequences:
The emotional and behavioral outcomes resulting from the belief.
Dysfunctional emotions such as anxiety, depression, or anger arise from
irrational beliefs. Rational beliefs, on the other hand, lead to healthier
emotional responses.
Irrational
Beliefs and Emotional Disturbances
Ellis
identified several common irrational beliefs that lead to emotional distress,
including:
- Demandingness:
The belief that life must be fair or that one must always succeed.
- Awfulizing/Catastrophizing:
The belief that setbacks are unbearable or disastrous.
- Low Frustration
Tolerance: The belief that one cannot
tolerate discomfort or adversity.
- Global Evaluation
of Self: Overgeneralizing mistakes to
define one’s entire self-worth.
Goals
of REBT
The
primary goal of REBT is to help individuals recognize, dispute, and change
irrational beliefs into rational ones. This process is called cognitive
restructuring. By doing so, clients can achieve emotional well-being and
develop adaptive coping strategies for life challenges.
Therapeutic
Techniques
REBT
employs various techniques to modify thought patterns and behavior:
- Cognitive Techniques:
Clients are taught to identify irrational beliefs and dispute them using
logic, evidence, and rational thinking. Questions such as “Is this belief
realistic?” or “What is the evidence for this thought?” help challenge
irrational ideas.
- Emotive Techniques:
Clients learn to manage their emotions through techniques such as rational
emotive imagery, which involves imagining situations while replacing
irrational beliefs with rational alternatives.
- Behavioral
Techniques: REBT emphasizes action-based
strategies, such as exposure, role-playing, and behavioral experiments, to
reinforce rational beliefs and adaptive behaviors.
- Homework
Assignments: Clients practice
skills and exercises outside therapy sessions, including journaling,
reframing negative thoughts, and implementing behavioral changes in
real-life situations.
Applications
of REBT
REBT
is widely applied to treat various psychological problems, including anxiety
disorders, depression, anger management issues, eating disorders, and
relationship difficulties. It is effective for both individual and group
therapy settings. Its structured approach helps clients develop lifelong skills
to manage stress, solve problems, and build resilience.
Strengths
of REBT
REBT
is proactive, practical, and focuses on current problems rather than past
experiences. It empowers clients to take responsibility for their thoughts and
emotions, promoting self-awareness and self-efficacy. It is also adaptable to
different age groups and cultural contexts.
Criticism
and Limitations
Some
critics argue that REBT may overemphasize rationality and undervalue emotional
experiences. Additionally, clients with severe mental disorders may require
supplementary therapeutic interventions. Despite these limitations, REBT
remains a widely respected approach in cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Conclusion
Rational
Emotive Behavior Therapy is a structured and goal-oriented approach that
emphasizes the identification and modification of irrational beliefs to promote
emotional well-being. By integrating cognitive, emotive, and behavioral
techniques, REBT equips individuals with lifelong tools for coping with
adversity, reducing psychological distress, and improving overall mental
health.
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b) Elaborate the Psycho analytical theory of personality by Sigmund
Freud
Sigmund
Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, proposed one of the most influential
theories of personality in the early 20th century. Freud’s psychoanalytical
theory focuses on the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and the dynamic
interplay of internal psychological forces as determinants of human behavior
and personality.
Structure
of Personality
Freud
conceptualized personality as composed of three main structures:
- Id:
Present from birth, the id operates on the pleasure principle and seeks
immediate gratification of basic instincts such as hunger, thirst, and
sexual desire. It is unconscious, impulsive, and irrational.
- Ego:
The ego develops during infancy and operates on the reality principle. It
mediates between the unrealistic demands of the id and the moral
constraints of the superego, helping the individual function effectively
in reality.
- Superego:
Emerging in early childhood, the superego incorporates societal norms,
values, and moral standards learned from parents and culture. It strives
for perfection and can induce feelings of guilt when rules are violated.
Levels
of Consciousness
Freud
proposed three levels of consciousness that influence behavior:
- Conscious:
Thoughts and feelings of which we are aware.
- Preconscious:
Memories and knowledge that can be easily brought into consciousness.
- Unconscious:
Deep-seated desires, fears, and conflicts that are inaccessible but
influence behavior and personality. Techniques like dream analysis and
free association are used to explore the unconscious.
Psychosexual
Stages of Development
Freud
emphasized the role of early childhood experiences in shaping personality
through five psychosexual stages:
1. Oral
Stage (0–1 year): Pleasure centers on
the mouth; fixation may lead to dependency or oral habits like smoking.
2. Anal
Stage (1–3 years): Focus on bowel
control; fixation may result in excessive orderliness or messiness.
3. Phallic
Stage (3–6 years): Pleasure from genital
organs; development of Oedipus or Electra complex.
4. Latency
Stage (6–12 years): Sexual urges are
dormant; focus on social and intellectual skills.
5. Genital
Stage (12 years onward): Maturation of sexual
interests and establishment of mature relationships.
Defense
Mechanisms
Freud
described unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety and conflict
between id, ego, and superego. Common defense mechanisms include:
- Repression:
Pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious.
- Denial:
Refusing to accept reality.
- Projection:
Attributing one’s own unacceptable impulses to others.
- Rationalization:
Creating logical explanations for unacceptable behaviors.
- Sublimation:
Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.
Contributions
of Psychoanalytical Theory
Freud’s
theory highlighted the importance of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences, and internal conflicts in shaping personality. It introduced
methods such as free association, dream analysis, and talk therapy, which are
foundational to modern psychotherapy. Freud also influenced the development of
various personality assessment techniques and theories of human motivation.
Criticism
and Limitations
Freud’s
theory has been criticized for overemphasizing sexuality, being culturally
biased, and lacking empirical evidence. Its deterministic view of personality
and reliance on case studies also limit generalizability. Despite this,
psychoanalysis remains a cornerstone in understanding personality and the
psychological roots of behavior.
Conclusion
Freud’s psychoanalytical theory of personality provides a comprehensive
framework for understanding human behavior through unconscious motivations,
early experiences, and internal conflicts. Its emphasis on the id, ego, and
superego, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms continues to influence
psychology, psychotherapy, and personality research.
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4)
Answer any four of the following questions in about 150 words each:
a) Explain the Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development.
Erik
Erikson, a renowned developmental psychologist, proposed the psychosocial
theory of development, which emphasizes the interaction between
psychological needs and social influences across the lifespan. According to
Erikson, human development occurs in eight stages, each characterized by
a specific psychosocial conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality
growth. Successful resolution leads to strength and competence, while failure
can result in maladjustment.
1. Infancy
(0–1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust – In this
stage, infants learn to trust their caregivers and the world if their basic
needs, such as food, comfort, and affection, are met consistently. Failure to
develop trust can lead to fear and suspicion.
2. Early
Childhood (1–3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
– Toddlers develop independence by learning to walk, talk, and make simple
choices. Encouragement fosters autonomy, whereas over-criticism or neglect
leads to shame and doubt.
3. Preschool
(3–6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt – Children
begin to plan activities, assert control, and explore their environment.
Positive reinforcement promotes initiative, while excessive restrictions can
result in guilt and hesitation.
4. School
Age (6–12 years): Industry vs. Inferiority
– Children acquire knowledge, skills, and competencies. Successful experiences
lead to industry and self-confidence, while repeated failure may foster
feelings of inferiority.
5. Adolescence
(12–18 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion
– Adolescents explore personal values, beliefs, and goals to form a coherent
identity. Failure to achieve a stable sense of self can result in role
confusion and uncertainty about the future.
6. Young
Adulthood (18–40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation
– Individuals seek deep relationships and emotional connections. Success results
in meaningful intimacy, whereas failure may lead to social isolation and
loneliness.
7. Middle
Adulthood (40–65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation
– Adults focus on contributing to society through work, family, and community.
Generativity fosters productivity and care for others, while stagnation can
result in self-absorption and lack of purpose.
8. Late
Adulthood (65+ years): Integrity vs. Despair
– Older adults reflect on their life, achievements, and failures. A sense of
fulfillment and integrity results in wisdom and satisfaction, whereas regret
and unresolved conflicts may lead to despair.
Erikson’s
stages highlight the importance of social relationships and psychosocial
challenges at each phase of life. Understanding these stages helps
educators, counselors, and social workers identify developmental needs and
support individuals across the lifespan.
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b) Enlist the various approaches to personality.
Personality
refers to the unique, consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors that define an individual. Various theoretical approaches
attempt to explain personality development and functioning.
1. Psychoanalytic
Approach – Proposed by Sigmund Freud, it
emphasizes unconscious motives, early childhood experiences, and psychosexual
stages. Personality is shaped by conflicts among the id (instincts), ego
(reality), and superego (morality).
2. Trait
Approach – This approach focuses on identifying
stable personality traits, such as extraversion, agreeableness, and
conscientiousness, which consistently influence behavior across situations. Key
theorists include Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck.
3. Behavioral
Approach – Personality is seen as a result of
learned behaviors through conditioning and reinforcement. Environmental
influences play a central role, and internal traits are less emphasized.
4. Humanistic
Approach – Theorists like Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow emphasize personal growth, self-actualization, and conscious
experiences. Personality develops through the pursuit of meaningful goals and
fulfilling potential.
5. Cognitive
Approach – This perspective highlights the role
of mental processes, such as perception, thought, and memory, in shaping
personality. Social-cognitive theorists, like Bandura, stress learning through
observation and self-efficacy.
6. Biological
Approach – This approach links personality to
genetics, brain structure, and neurotransmitter functioning, suggesting that
heredity influences temperament and behavioral tendencies.
7. Situational
or Interactionist Approach – Personality is
shaped by both traits and situational factors. Behavior varies depending on the
context, emphasizing the interaction between individual characteristics and
environment.
In
conclusion, understanding these approaches allows psychologists, counselors,
and social workers to assess personality from multiple perspectives and apply
suitable interventions for personal development.
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c) Describe the Components of group dynamics.
Group
dynamics refers to the interactions and processes occurring within a group
that influence behavior, cohesion, and performance. Understanding group
dynamics is critical for social workers, educators, and organizational leaders
to enhance group functioning.
1. Roles
– Each member assumes specific roles such as leader, facilitator, observer, or
challenger. Roles provide structure and clarity within the group.
2. Norms
– These are unwritten rules or expectations that guide behavior, promote
order, and maintain group identity.
3. Cohesion
– Cohesion reflects the sense of unity, trust, and belonging among group
members. High cohesion increases participation and reduces conflict.
4. Communication
– Effective verbal and non-verbal communication facilitates understanding,
problem-solving, and decision-making.
5. Leadership
– Leadership styles influence group motivation, direction, and effectiveness.
Leaders may adopt democratic, autocratic, or laissez-faire styles depending on
group needs.
6. Conflict
and Resolution – Conflicts are natural in groups
and can arise due to role ambiguity, differences in values, or competition.
Proper resolution strengthens group cohesion.
7. Decision-Making
– Groups adopt various decision-making methods, including consensus, majority
vote, or authoritative directives. Inclusive decision-making enhances
participation and commitment.
8. Group
Development Stages – According to
Tuckman, groups go through forming, storming, norming, performing, and
adjourning stages, each influencing dynamics and productivity.
In
conclusion, components of group dynamics work together to shape individual
behavior and collective outcomes. Understanding these elements is essential for
managing effective group processes.
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d) Mention the types of anxiety disorders.
Anxiety
disorders are mental health conditions characterized by excessive fear,
worry, or apprehension that interfere with daily functioning. They are
among the most common psychological disorders and manifest in different forms.
1. Generalized
Anxiety Disorder (GAD) – Persistent and
excessive worry about everyday life events, often accompanied by fatigue,
restlessness, and sleep disturbances.
2. Panic
Disorder – Recurrent panic attacks involving
sudden intense fear, palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, and a sense
of impending doom.
3. Social
Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia) – Extreme fear
and avoidance of social situations due to fear of judgment, embarrassment, or
humiliation.
4. Specific
Phobias – Irrational fear of specific objects
or situations, such as heights, snakes, or flying, leading to avoidance
behaviors.
5. Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder (OCD) – Characterized by recurrent
intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts
(compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety.
6. Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Anxiety and distress
following exposure to a traumatic event, including flashbacks, nightmares,
hypervigilance, and avoidance.
7. Separation
Anxiety Disorder – Excessive fear of being
separated from attachment figures, commonly observed in children but may
persist in adults.
8. Agoraphobia
– Fear of being in places or situations where escape might be difficult, often
leading to avoidance of public spaces.
Understanding
these anxiety disorders is essential for early identification, intervention,
and providing psychological support or therapeutic services.
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5)
Write short notes on any five of the following questions in about 100 words
each:
a) Ego Psychology
Ego
psychology is a branch of psychoanalysis that emphasizes the role of the ego in
human development and behavior. Developed primarily by Anna Freud and Heinz
Hartmann, it focuses on how the ego mediates between the demands of the id,
superego, and reality. Unlike classical Freudian theory, which concentrated
heavily on the unconscious and instinctual drives, ego psychology stresses
adaptive functions, reality testing, and problem-solving capacities of the ego.
The
ego functions include perception, memory, judgment, reasoning, impulse control,
and defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms such as repression, projection, and
rationalization help individuals cope with anxiety and internal conflicts. Ego
psychology also examines how these defenses develop and their impact on
personality and behavior.
In
clinical practice, ego psychology helps social workers and psychologists assess
coping strategies, emotional regulation, and adaptive functioning in clients.
The approach is particularly useful in understanding developmental issues,
personality disorders, and responses to stress and trauma.
Ego
psychology also emphasizes the significance of social influences, learning, and
environmental factors in shaping the ego. By strengthening ego functions,
interventions aim to enhance resilience, self-control, and problem-solving
abilities.
In
conclusion, ego psychology provides a framework for understanding human
adaptation and behavior. It highlights the importance of ego functioning in
maintaining psychological balance and facilitating healthy development,
offering valuable insights for clinical and social work practice.
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b) Neurosis
Neurosis
is a psychological condition characterized by chronic distress, anxiety, or
emotional imbalance without a loss of reality testing. Individuals with
neurosis may experience depression, anxiety, phobias, obsessive thoughts, or
somatic complaints but remain in touch with reality. The term was widely used
in classical psychoanalysis, though modern diagnostic systems like DSM-5
classify these conditions under anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, or
somatic symptom disorders.
Causes
of neurosis often include unresolved conflicts, childhood experiences,
personality traits, and environmental stressors. Defense mechanisms, studied in
ego psychology, play a significant role in the manifestation of neurotic
symptoms.
Neurosis
affects daily functioning, interpersonal relationships, and emotional
well-being. Symptoms can range from mild to severe and may impact work,
education, and social life. Treatment typically involves psychotherapy,
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), relaxation techniques, and sometimes
medication.
In
social work and counseling, understanding neurosis helps professionals provide
appropriate interventions, emotional support, and coping strategies. Early
identification and supportive therapy can prevent chronic distress and improve
quality of life.
In
conclusion, neurosis represents maladaptive responses to internal conflicts or
external stress. While it does not involve loss of reality, it significantly
affects mental health and requires timely psychosocial and therapeutic interventions.
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c) Unity in Diversity
Unity
in diversity refers to the coexistence of different cultures, languages,
religions, and social practices within a society while maintaining social
cohesion and national integration. This concept is particularly relevant to
multicultural societies like India, where diversity is a core feature.
Unity
in diversity emphasizes tolerance, mutual respect, and acceptance of
differences. It promotes harmony among people with varying beliefs, customs,
and values. Social integration, intercultural dialogue, and inclusive policies
are essential for achieving unity in diversity.
In
social work and community development, promoting unity in diversity involves
encouraging social cohesion, reducing discrimination, and fostering participation
of marginalized groups. Education, awareness campaigns, and cultural programs
can help build understanding and solidarity.
Challenges
to unity in diversity include prejudice, communalism, ethnic conflicts, and
social inequality. Addressing these challenges requires effective governance,
legal frameworks, and social interventions.
In
conclusion, unity in diversity is a guiding principle for peaceful coexistence
and social progress. It emphasizes that diversity strengthens rather than
weakens a society when inclusivity, respect, and equality are promoted.
d) Stereotype
A
stereotype is a widely held, fixed, and oversimplified belief about a
particular group of people, often based on characteristics such as race,
gender, religion, or occupation. Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or
neutral but often lead to prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors.
Stereotyping
simplifies social perception, but it is cognitively biased and ignores
individual differences. It is reinforced by socialization, media, education,
and cultural norms. Common examples include gender roles (e.g., “women are
nurturing”), racial biases, or occupational assumptions.
Stereotypes
impact social interactions, decision-making, and social policies. They can lead
to marginalization, exclusion, and reduced opportunities for targeted groups.
In mental health, stereotyping may cause internalized stigma and low
self-esteem.
Social
workers, educators, and policymakers work to reduce stereotypes through
awareness campaigns, inclusive education, anti-discrimination policies, and
intergroup contact programs.
In
conclusion, stereotypes are cognitive shortcuts that can distort reality and
perpetuate social inequality. Addressing stereotypes is crucial for fostering
fairness, equality, and social justice.
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e) Panic and Phobic Disorders
Panic
and phobic disorders are types of anxiety disorders characterized by excessive
fear and anxiety that interfere with daily life. Panic disorder involves
sudden, intense episodes of fear or discomfort known as panic attacks, often
accompanied by physical symptoms such as palpitations, sweating, and shortness
of breath.
Phobic
disorders involve persistent and irrational fears of specific objects,
situations, or activities. Examples include agoraphobia (fear of open or public
spaces), social phobia (fear of social situations), and specific phobias (fear
of heights, animals, or blood).
Causes
of these disorders can be genetic, neurobiological, psychological, or
environmental. Stress, trauma, or learned behaviors often trigger or exacerbate
symptoms. The disorders significantly affect social, occupational, and personal
functioning.
Treatment
includes psychotherapy (especially cognitive-behavioral therapy), exposure
therapy, relaxation techniques, and, in some cases, medication such as
anti-anxiety drugs or antidepressants.
In
social work and mental health practice, early identification, supportive
counseling, and community-based interventions are essential for helping
individuals manage symptoms and improve quality of life.
In
conclusion, panic and phobic disorders are debilitating anxiety conditions.
Timely psychosocial support, education, and therapeutic interventions are
critical for effective management and social reintegration.
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