IGNOU MPC 003 Personality
Theories and Assessment Solved Assignment 2023-24 | MA Psychology
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SECTION – A
Answer
the following questions in 1000 words each.
Q1. Discuss the
role of psychological factors in personality development.
Personality
development refers to the process of developing, enhancing, and changing one's
personality over time. Such development occurs naturally over the course of
life, but it can also be modified through intentional efforts.
When we
meet new people, it is often their personality that grabs our
attention. According to the American Psychological Association, personality
refers to the enduring behaviors, traits, emotional patterns, and abilities
that make up a person's response to the events of their life.1
“Personality
is a blend of behavioral and thought patterns that are relatively stable over
time, characterizing an individual's traits and attitudes,"
says Ludovica Colella, a CBT therapist and author of "The Feel Good
Journal."
Understanding
how personality develops can provide insight into who someone is and their
background while also increasing our understanding of what's behind our
personality traits and characteristics.
Theories of
Personality Development
Our
personalities make us unique, but how does personality develop? What factors
play the most important role in the formation of personality? Can personality
change?
To answer
these questions, many prominent thinkers have developed theories to describe
the various steps and stages that occur during the development of personality. The
following theories focus on several aspects of personality formation—including
those that involve cognitive, social, and moral development.
In his
well-known stage theory of psychosexual development, Sigmund Freud
suggested that personality develops in stages that are related to specific
erogenous zones. These stages are:
·
Stage 1: Oral stage (birth to 1
year)
·
Stage 2: Anal stage (1 to 3 years)
·
Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6
years)
·
Stage 4: Latent period (age 6 to
puberty)
·
Stage 5: Genital stage (puberty to
death)
Freud also
believed that failure to complete these stages would lead to personality
problems in adulthood.4
In addition
to being one of the best-known thinkers in personality development, Sigmund
Freud remains one of the most controversial. While he made significant
contributions to the field of psychology, some of his more disputed and
unproven theories, such as his theory of psychosexual development, have been
rejected by modern scientists.
Freud's
Structural Model of Personality
Freud not
only theorized about how personality developed over the course of childhood,
but he also developed a framework for how overall personality is structured.
According
to Freud, the basic driving force of personality and behavior is known as
the libido. This libidinal energy fuels the three components that make up
personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.5
The id is
the aspect of personality present at birth. It is the most primal part of the
personality and drives people to fulfill their most basic needs and urges.
The ego is
the aspect of personality charged with controlling the urges of the id and
forcing it to behave in realistic ways.
The superego is
the final aspect of personality to develop and contains all of the ideals,
morals, and values imbued by our parents and culture.
According
to Freud, these three elements of personality work together to create complex
human behaviors. The superego attempts to make the ego behave according to
these ideals. The ego must then moderate between the primal needs of the id,
the idealistic standards of the superego, and reality.
Freud's
concept of the id, ego, and superego has gained prominence in popular culture,
despite a lack of support and considerable skepticism from many researchers.6
While
Freudian theory is less relevant today than it once was, it can be helpful to
learn more about these theories in order to better understand the history of
research on personality development.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik
Erikson’s eight-stage theory of human development is another
well-known theory in psychology. While it builds on Freud’s stages of
psychosexual development, Erikson chose to focus on how social relationships
impact personality development.
The theory
also extends beyond childhood to look at development across the entire
lifespan.
Erikson's
eight stages are:7
Stage
1: Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year)
Stage
2: Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 2 years)
Stage
3: Initiative versus guilt (3 to 5 years)
Stage
4: Industry versus inferiority (6 to 11 years)
Stage
5: Identity versus role confusion (12 to 18 years)
Stage
6: Intimacy versus isolation (19 to 40 years)
Stage
7: Generativity versus stagnation (41 to 64 years)
Stage
8: Integrity versus despair (65 years to death)
At each
stage, people face a crisis in which a task must be mastered. Those who
successfully complete that stage emerge with a sense of mastery and well-being.
However,
Erikson believed that those who do not resolve the crisis at a particular stage
may struggle with those skills for the remainder of their lives.8
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development remains one of the most
frequently cited in psychology.9
While many
aspects of Piaget's theory have not stood the test of time, the central idea
remains important today: Children think differently than adults.
According
to Piaget, children progress through a series of four stages that are marked by
distinctive changes in how they think. And how children think about themselves,
others, and the world around them plays an essential role in personality
development.
Piaget's
four stages are:
Stage
1: Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
Stage
2: Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
Stage
3: Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
Stage
4: Formal operational stage (12 years and up)
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence
Kohlberg developed a theory of personality development that focused on the
growth of moral thought. Building on a two-stage process proposed by Piaget, Kohlberg
expanded the theory to include six different stages:10
Stage 1:
Obedience and punishment
Stage 2:
Individualism and exchange
Stage 3:
Developing good interpersonal relationships
Stage 4:
Maintaining social order
Stage 5:
Social contract and individual rights
Stage 6:
Universal principles
These
stages are separated by levels. Level one is the pre-conventional level, it
includes stages one and two, and takes place from birth to 9 years. Level two
is the conventional level, it includes stages three and four, and takes place
from age 10 to adolescence. Level three is the post-conventional level, it
includes stages five and six, and takes place in adulthood.
Although
this theory includes six stages, Kohlberg felt that it was rare for people to
progress beyond stage four, stressing that these moral development stages are
not correlated with the maturation process.
Kohlberg's theory
of moral development has been criticized for several different reasons.
One primary criticism is that it does not accommodate different genders and cultures
equally.Yet, the theory remains important in our understanding of how
personality develops.
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Q2. Define
apperception. Describe tests related to apperception.
Apperception
is a psychological term that refers to the process of interpreting and
understanding new experiences or information in relation to one's existing
knowledge and mental framework. It involves the integration of new stimuli into
pre-existing cognitive structures, allowing individuals to make sense of their
surroundings and experiences. The concept of apperception has roots in the
field of psychology, particularly in the works of German philosopher and
psychologist Wilhelm Wundt and later developed by Gestalt psychologists.
Apperception
is a crucial aspect of cognitive functioning as it influences how individuals
perceive and make meaning of the world around them. The process involves the
activation of relevant pre-existing mental representations, memories, and
concepts to understand and interpret new information. Apperception plays a
significant role in various cognitive processes, including learning, memory,
problem-solving, and decision-making.
Tests
related to apperception are designed to explore and understand an individual's
cognitive and emotional responses to ambiguous stimuli, revealing aspects of
their personality, thought processes, and underlying psychological dynamics.
These tests often involve presenting individuals with stimuli such as images,
scenes, or stories that lack clear and explicit details. The individual's
responses to these stimuli are then analyzed to gain insights into their
cognitive and emotional processes.
One of the
well-known tests related to apperception is the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT). Developed by psychologists Henry A. Murray and Christiana D. Morgan in
the 1930s, the TAT is a projective psychological test that aims to reveal an
individual's underlying motives, concerns, and thought patterns. During the
test, the participant is shown a series of ambiguous pictures and asked to
create a story about each image. The stories they generate are thought to
reflect their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts.
The
Rorschach Inkblot Test is another projective test related to apperception.
Created by Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach in the early 20th century, this
test involves showing individuals a series of inkblots and asking them to
describe what each shape or pattern reminds them of. The responses are then
analyzed to gain insights into the individual's thought processes, emotional
responses, and personality characteristics.
The
Sentence Completion Test is yet another example of a test related to
apperception. In this test, participants are given incomplete sentences and
asked to complete them in ways that reflect their thoughts, feelings, and
attitudes. The responses are then analyzed to provide a deeper understanding of
the individual's personality dynamics and cognitive processes.
These
apperception tests are considered projective because they rely on ambiguous
stimuli, allowing individuals to project their own interpretations and emotions
onto the stimuli. The assumption is that the responses given by the individual
will reveal aspects of their unconscious mind that may not be readily
accessible through direct questioning.
It's
important to note that while apperception tests can offer valuable insights
into an individual's psychological makeup, they are not without criticisms.
Critics argue that the subjective interpretation of responses and the lack of
standardized scoring procedures make these tests less reliable and valid
compared to more objective assessments. Additionally, cultural and individual
differences may impact the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli, raising
questions about the generalizability of results across diverse populations.
In
conclusion, apperception is a fundamental cognitive process that involves
interpreting new information in the context of existing mental frameworks.
Tests related to apperception, such as the Thematic Apperception Test,
Rorschach Inkblot Test, and Sentence Completion Test, aim to uncover underlying
aspects of personality, emotions, and cognitive processes. While these tests
can provide valuable insights, they also face criticisms regarding their
subjective nature and potential cultural biases. As with any psychological
assessment, it is essential to consider multiple factors and approaches for a
comprehensive understanding of an individual's psychological profile.
The
Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a type of projective test that
involves describing ambiguous scenes to learn more about a person's emotions,
motivations, and personality. Popularly known as the "picture
interpretation technique," it was developed by American psychologists
Henry A. Murray and Christina D. Morgan at Harvard University in the
1930s.1 The TAT is one of the most widely researched and clinically
used personality tests.
The TAT can
be utilized by therapists in a number of different ways. Some of these
include:3
To learn
more about a person. In this way, the test acts as something of an icebreaker
while providing useful information about potential emotional conflicts the
client may have.
To help
people express their feelings. The TAT is often used as a therapeutic tool to
allow clients to express feelings in a non-direct way. A client may not yet be
able to express a certain feeling directly, but they might be able
to identify the emotion when viewed from an outside perspective.
To explore
themes related to the person's life experiences. Clients dealing with problems
such as job loss, divorce, or health issues might interpret the ambiguous
scenes and relating to their unique circumstances, allowing deeper exploration
over the course of therapy.
To assess
someone for psychological conditions. The test is sometimes used as a tool to
assess personality or thought disorders.
To evaluate
crime suspects. Clinicians may administer the test to criminals to assess the
risk of recidivism or to determine if a person matches the profile of a crime
suspect.
To screen
job candidates. This is sometimes used to determine if people are suited
to particular roles, especially positions that require coping with stress and
evaluating vague situations such as military leadership and law enforcement
positions.
Criticisms of the Thematic Apperception Test
The TAT is
often criticized for not being standardized, meaning there are no rules of
administration or formal scoring system. Clinicians often vary in how they
administer the test. Additionally, few practitioners use Murray's complex
scoring system and instead rely on their subjective interpretation and clinical
opinion.
For
example, even if clinicians use the same scoring system, they may use different
cards or a different number of cards. This makes it incredibly difficult to
obtain estimates of reliability and validity,and almost
impossible to compare results.
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Q3. Explain the
purpose of interview method. Discuss the strengths and limitations of interview
method.
An
interview is a conversation between a candidate and company professionals to
assess if the candidate is the right fit. As an interviewer, this part of
the recruitment process allows you to find out more about the
candidate, such as their personality and background. Learning about the pros
and cons may allow you to conduct the interview well and understand challenges
to be aware of during the interview. In this article, we discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of interviews, including exploring the five pros and five
cons and providing interviewing tips that may allow you to experience more
successful interviews.
Advantages and Disadvantages Of Interviews
Here are
some advantages and disadvantages of interviews:
5
advantages of interviews
Here is a
list of interview advantages you may experience:
1. Selecting
the ideal candidates for the position
An
advantage of interviewing is it may increase your success in selecting the
right candidate for the position. There are several primary details you can
learn about a candidate from their CV and cover letter when they are
applying for the job, but interviews can become more in-depth about their
credentials and personality. In an interview, the professional can share
stories and elaborate on the information provided in their CV, which may help
you determine their skill set better than relying only on their CV.
Additionally,
an interview provides an opportunity to determine how a professional reacts in
demanding situations, such as an interview. Understanding how an individual
handles these events can help you determine how they may perform on the job.
Meetings may also allow you to determine how little or how much training the
candidate may require.
2.
Conducting detailed evaluations
Interviews
allow the interviewer and interviewee to visualise how they fit into each
other's lives and reach their career goals. An interview where you are asking a
candidate the right questions can showcase how knowledgeable the professional
is about the industry. Likewise, the candidate can determine if this is the
position for them based on how you, as the interviewer, describe the job's
responsibilities in-depth and the work culture.
During an
interview, you can ask several questions about the candidates' educational
background, such as the degrees and certifications they have gained, and their
soft and hard skills. For example, if you are interviewing a candidate making a
career switch, you may ask about their soft skills more than their
technical skills. Their soft skills are transferable abilities they can apply
to various roles and industries, such as communication and teamwork.
3. Getting
to know the candidate and yourself well
Often,
getting to know the candidate well is a primary goal of an interview. You can
gain an understanding of a professional's strengths and weaknesses. As you get
to know their assets, it may help you determine how they best leverage their
abilities in the company. The interviewee may also discuss the areas they are
working on improvements.
During an
interview, you may also get to know yourself better as a professional, such as
your leadership and management style. Understanding these aspects of yourself
can help you improve as a professional and enhance your interviewing skills,
which may lead to more successful meetings.
4.
Experiencing improved customer bonds
Speaking
with candidates may allow you to experience improved customer bonds because you
are speaking with a consumer. Interviews may provide insight into consumer
wants, needs and attitudes about the company you can leverage with stakeholders
and other senior leadership professionals. Often, when companies are competing
with competitors, salary and other employee retention data become valuable. You
may ask candidates about salary expectations and why they left their
current company.
Additionally,
it might be helpful to ask what their past company may have done to keep them
and ensure the company you work for can provide them with their response. For
example, if a candidate expresses they are looking to earn a reasonable salary
promotion, you may work with the company to ensure this happens to retain their
talent.
5.
Differentiating similar candidates
An
interview can allow you to differentiate similar candidates from each other
based on their CVs and cover letters. You can schedule interviews with each
similar candidate to meet them and determine how their personalities may
collaborate with other company professionals. It can also help you learn about
unique skills or talents an individual may have that they left off their
application materials.
5 disadvantages of interviews
1.
Navigating personal biases
A potential
interview disadvantage is navigating your personal biases. Biases can differ
from stereotypes because a bias is your opinion that may distract your
judgement from the facts. For example, you may prefer a candidate to have
earned a marketing degree for a role, so you may disqualify a candidate in your
mind if they have obtained a communication degree, but still possess a similar
skill set.
To avoid
this bias, ask another company professional to join you in the interview with a
candidate to determine if they are a good fit for the role. Receiving another
individual's opinion may help reduce your personal biases from becoming a
factor in hiring a candidate.
2. Judging
individuals too quickly
During an
interview, judging individuals too quickly may become a challenge because you
may decide to hire the candidate within the first few minutes of the meeting.
It is a challenge because you may unintentionally miss important information
the candidate shares about their credentials later in the interview. To avoid
this, attempt to listen to the individual during the entire meeting and ask
follow-up questions when they introduce new information about themselves to
learn more about it.
3. Creating
stereotypes
Creating
stereotypes can create several challenges during an interview. A stereotype is
a generalised idea about a group of individuals. To avoid casting stereotypes
onto a candidate in an interview, ask fair and relevant questions about their
skills, credentials and other situational questions to learn about them as a
professional. It is also critical to ask each candidate the same questions to
ensure fairness.
4.
Experiencing uncertain outcomes
Interviews
provide helpful insights into how a professional may act in the workplace, but
it is not always true. A candidate can answer the question one way but react to
other real-life situations differently. There is no way to ensure the entire
validity of how a candidate answers a question and aligns it with their
actions, which means sometimes it may be wrong.
5.
Verifying candidate's facts
During an
interview, a professional may share several primary factors, such as what they
did for their last company. For example, an individual may share they increased
their current company's sales by 10% in the past year, but it may be hard to
fact-check their statement. To avoid this, you may ask the professional for a
few references. From there, you may call the individuals listed as their
references to add validity to their claims before hiring them.
Tips For A
Successful Interview
Here are
a few tips to consider that may help you experience a successful
interview:
Create a
list of questions. Create a list of questions before the interview to help
you remember your questions and provide structured guidance to the meeting. If
follow-up questions arise during the meeting, ask them even
if they are not on the list.
Take notes
during the meeting. Taking notes during the interview can allow you to
remember the key elements of each candidate's interview. When deciding which
professional to choose for the role, you can refer to the notes you took to
help you choose and clear up your recent bias, which is the bias that the last
candidate you spoke to is the best one because it is easier to recall.
Ask
open-ended questions. When you are asking candidates questions, it is
essential to ask them open-ended questions, which are questions requiring an
individual to provide detailed answers. Open-ended questions allow you to get
to know a candidate and how they may react to certain situations or display
behaviours in the workplace, which can help you determine if they are the right
fit for the company's workplace culture.
Provide the
candidate with an interview outline. At the beginning of the interview,
provide the candidate with a framework of the interview process. The meeting
summary can include the progression in questions, such as general questions
about them, their educational credentials and background experiences and
in-depth questions, such as situational and behavioural questions.
Listen
more, talk less. In an interview, allow the candidate to speak for the
bulk of the meeting because you are getting to know what makes them the right
fit for the position. Consider using silence as an interview tool when looking
for more information from the professional, as they may take the silence as a
cue to keep talking.
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SECTION – B
Answer the following questions in 400 words
each.
Q4. Discuss the
role of nature and nurture in personality development
Nature refers
largely to our genetics. It includes the genes we are born with and other
hereditary factors that can impact how our personality is formed and influence
the way that we develop from childhood through adulthood.
Nurture encompasses
the environmental factors that impact who we are. This includes our early
childhood experiences, the way we were raised, our social relationships,
and the surrounding culture.
A few
biologically determined characteristics include genetic diseases, eye color,
hair color, and skin color. Other characteristics are tied to environmental
influences, such as how a person behaves, which can be influenced by parenting
styles and learned experiences.
For
example, one child might learn through
observation and reinforcement to say please and thank you.
Another child might learn to behave aggressively by observing older children
engage in violent behavior on the playground.
The Debate of Nature vs. Nurture
The nature
vs. nurture debate centers on the contributions of genetics and environmental
factors to human development. Some philosophers, such as Plato and Descartes,
suggested that certain factors are inborn or occur naturally regardless of
environmental influences.
Advocates
of this point of view believe that all of our characteristics and behaviors are
the result of evolution. They contend that genetic traits are handed down from
parents to their children and influence the individual differences that make
each person unique.
Other
well-known thinkers, such as John Locke, believed in what is known
as tabula rasa which suggests that the mind begins as a blank
slate. According to this notion, everything that we are is determined by our
experiences.
Behaviorism
is a good example of a theory rooted in this belief as behaviorists feel that
all actions and behaviors are the results of conditioning. Theorists such
as John B. Watson believed that people could be trained to do and
become anything, regardless of their genetic background.
People with
extreme views are called nativists and empiricists. Nativists take the position
that all or most behaviors and characteristics are the result of inheritance.
Empiricists take the position that all or most behaviors and characteristics
result from learning.
Q5. Delineate
the common characteristics and assumptions of behavioural assessment methods.
A sort of
psychological evaluation known as behavioral assessment involves observing, measuring,
and recording a person’s behavior in order to pinpoint and explain their traits
and underlying psychological mechanisms. The following are some of the
prevalent traits and presumptions of behavioral assessment:
Empirical
observation: The foundation of behavioral evaluation is empirical observation,
which entails close scrutiny of a subject’s actions within a particular
setting. This entails observing and evaluating the person’s actions and the
results that follow.
Focus on
behavior: Rather than on subjective thoughts, feelings, or emotions, behavioral
evaluation concentrates on visible and quantifiable behavior. This indicates
that it is more focused on observable behavior and less concerned with internal
processes.
Contextual
evaluation: When evaluating behavior, the environment in which the behavior is
occurring is taken into account. The assessment method must take into account
the surroundings, social context, and other contextual aspects because they may
have an impact on behavior.
Functional analysis:
When conducting a behavioural evaluation, it is necessary to analyse the
behaviour in question in order to determine its precise function. This entails
figuring out the causes — the antecedents or triggers — as well as the effects
— the maintenance — of the behaviour.
Behaviour
modification: Behavioural assessment makes the assumption that behaviour may be
changed using a variety of methods, including positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, and modelling. The purpose of behavioural evaluation is to
determine the best methods for changing behaviour.
Collaboration:
Behavioural assessments are frequently conducted in collaboration with the
person being assessed, their family, carers, and other pertinent stakeholders.
This makes it easier to guarantee that the evaluation is thorough and pertinent
to the demands and objectives of the client.
Common Characteristics and Assumptions of Behavioural
Assessment Methods
Certain
common features of behavioural assessment methods are discussed below:
They all
focus on behaviour: In behavioural assessment, both overt and covert
behaviors are assessed. An assessment should be objective.
They
believe in Quantification: Behavior is quantified so that the information
can be reliable across time and persons. It also makes the information more
objective.
They use
trained, impartial observers: Trained and impartial observers are used for
recording and collecting information in an objective manner. They are also
supposed to interpret the data objectively.
They use empirically.
validated measures: The measurement across situations should be consistent
and empirically validated.
They
recognize errors and try to minimize errors: Assessment of behaviour
involves different degrees of error causing. Attempts are made to reduce ,the
errors by using statistical techniques.
The
behaviour concerned happens because stimuli from the environment: The
situational influences on behaviour, public events and direct observation of
behaviour i)‘ the natural environment are emphasized.
They depend
not on one but multiple sources of information: Besides behavioural
assessment, various assessment strategies are used. They include checklists,
behavioural interviews, rating scales, Standardized instruments, self-reports,
self-monitoring forms and observations.
They put
high emphasis on intervention: The primary purpose of assessment is to get
information that will help in developing effective intervention strategies.
They use
continuous assessment: Assessment is continuous throughout baseline, intervention,
and follow up phases. The effectiveness of intervention strategies is
continuously evaluated.
They
emphasize on empirically based decision-making process: On the basis of
empirical data available, decisions about assessment strategies and interventions
are made.
They focus
on individual person rather than groups: Individuals are focused and not
group for behavioural assessment. Recognition of individual differences in
behaviour and its determinants lead to idiosyncratic assessment and intervention.
High
emphasis is put on individual differences: Individual differences get high
importance along with situational and cultural differences.
They look
for causes contributing to the problem and try to solve the
problem: Identification of causes contributing to the .problem is
extremely important so as to devise intervention strategies to solve the
problem.
They focus
on developing adaptive behaviour in the individual: Behavioural assessment
focuses on developing adaptive, positive, or desirable behaviour.
Q6. Explain the
salient features of Roger’s theory of personality.
The
humanistic approach to personality psychology embraces the person as a
whole and unique being, fundamentally good, with self-actualizing tendencies.
The humanistic theory of personality, therefore, conforms to the notion
that self-concept develops in the quest to fulfill potential, with
humans striving for morality, creativity, and meaningful purpose through free
will. Deviating from other schools of thought, the humanistic perspective on
personality proposes that our motivations are fueled by good intentions with
self-efficacy and growth being pivotal concerns. Personality is conceptualized
as a framework designed to encourage a 'fully functioning person'. From this
vantage point, humanism has contributed new ways of assessing personality,
behavior, and treatment options in clinical contexts.
Carl Rogers
embodied the humanistic approach in both theory and practice. His personality
theory proposed a self-actualizing tendency as the foundation of
personality development. Self-concept emerges as a pivotal product of
the process. As individuals strive toward actualization, the self is divided
into two categories: the real self and the ideal self. The real self
is representative of the individual while the ideal self exemplifies the
aspirations of the individual. When the real self is closely aligned with the
ideal self, there is a wholesome sense of congruence. This
impacts self-image and self-worth in positive ways which in
turn manifests in healthy and productive function. However, when the ideal self
and real self are largely disparate, a status of incongruence occurs,
which can be illustrated by a star athlete who thinks he is not talented.
Despite
Carl Rogers' viable contribution to the field of humanistic psychology and
personality development, his theory has undergone a variety of criticisms by
other schools of thought. Critics have observed that there are limitations to
Rogers' theoretical approach. They cite the inability of Rogers to
scientifically investigate or systematically record the subjective experiences
of clients. They also note that Rogers neglects the salience of unconscious
activities in personality development and behavior while minimizing the
influence of societal contexts. Listed below are just some of the limitations
noted with regards to Rogers' position:
Rogers is
primarily focused on conscious, free will, but studies have indicated that the
unconscious dynamics are worthy of consideration.
Rogers has
made unsubstantiated generalizations about human nature.
It is
difficult to systematically measure the variables involved in humanistic
studies since they are often of a qualitative nature.
Rogers'
approach underestimates societal effect on personality development.
Carl
Rogers, a renowned American psychologist, has made a lasting contribution to
humanistic psychology by contributing novel ideas about personality development
in the engagement of free will; and by proposing therapeutic modalities
involving a client-centered approach to psychological health. The
client-centered approach relies heavily on the concept of 'unconditional
positive regard' in which therapists are accepting of clients without being
judgmental. His fundamental precept is that humans are inherently good, with
instincts toward growth and creativity, motivated by self-actualizing
tendencies.
Q7. Explain the
key concepts of Cattell’s theory of personality.
Cattell
studied a variety of personality types and personality traits. Of particular
interest to Cattell was how to assess personality, and his work is heavily
influenced by the systematic collection of scientific data. This is quite
different than many of the psychodynamic and humanistic theorists, who based
their theories on clinical observation, but it is similar to the learning
theorists, who also value careful, objective observation and the collection of
scientific data. Neither approach is inherently better, since they each serve a
different purpose. Cattell’s approach, however, has had a dramatic effect on
psychological testing.
A
psychological type refers to a broader description of personality than a
psychological trait, and is often associated with abnormal psychology.
According to Cattell, a type can only be understood in terms of personality
traits. For example, a villain is a type based on a pattern of associated
traits such as immorality, cruelty, and disregard for the law and the rights of
others. Cattell considered types to fall into one of five principal categories:
temperamental characteristics, interests and character, abilities, disposition,
and disintegration and disease processes. As further examples, and in
accordance with Cattell’s type categories, we can include the ancient
personality types of Hippocrates (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic),
the oral-erotic and anal-erotic types of Sigmund Freud, musical vs.
mathematical geniuses, unrestrained vs. restrained personalities, and various
neurotic and psychotic syndromes (Cattell, 1946, 1950a,b, 1965).
Cattell
believed that clinical psychologists always took personality traits for
granted, but focused their attention on the patterns of traits that defined
clinical syndromes (or types). However, if one wishes to conduct a thorough
description and measurement of personality, traits must be the target of that
investigation. Thus, Cattell focused his attention on the details of
understanding and describing traits. He agreed with Allport’s description of
individual vs. common traits, though he preferred the use of the term unique
traits to describe the former. Cattell described a trait as a collection
of reactions or responses bound by some sort of unity, thus allowing the
responses to be covered by one term and treated similarly in most situations.
The challenge lies in identifying the nature of the unity, which has been done
in different ways throughout the history of studying personality.
According
to Cattell, traits and types are not fundamentally different, but rather
opposite extremes of the same statistical measures. The fundamental, underlying
traits are known as source traits. Source traits often combine and/or
interact in ways that appear, on the surface, to indicate a single trait. For
example, in the area of abilities, a unitary intelligence shows itself in good
academic performance, such a child who does well in school. Of course, children
who do well in school typically do well in most areas, such as math, English,
social studies, etc. What may now appear to be a type, a “good student,” can
also be described as a surface trait (Cattell, 1950b). As useful as
surface traits, or types, may be descriptively, in order to truly understand
personality, one must address the source traits. First, however, they must be
identified.
Q8. In the
light of Horney’s theory of personality, explain the concept of basic anxiety
and neurotic needs.
Neurosis is
an inability to adapt and a tendency to experience excessive negative or
obsessive thoughts and behaviors. The term has been in use since the 1700s. In
1980, the diagnosis was removed from the "Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders." While no longer a formal diagnosis, the term
is still often used informally to describe behaviors related to stress and
anxiety.
Karen
Horney (pronounced HORN-eye) was a psychoanalyst and theorist who suggested
that people possess a number of neurotic needs that play a role in driving
behavior. In her 1942 book "Self-Analysis," Horney outlined her
theory of neurosis, describing different types of neurotic behavior as a result
of overusing coping strategies to deal with basic anxiety.
Three Types of Neurotic Needs
Horney's
neurotic needs can be classified into three broad categories:
Needs that
move people toward others: These neurotic needs cause
individuals to seek affirmation and acceptance from others. People with these
needs are often described as needy or clingy as they seek out approval
and love.
Needs that
move people away from others: These neurotic needs create
hostility and antisocial behavior. These individuals are often described as
cold, indifferent, and aloof.
Needs that
move people against others: These neurotic needs result in
hostility and a need to control other people. These individuals are often
described as difficult, domineering, and unkind.
Karen
Horney's Theory of Personality
The three
broad categories of neurotic needs essentially describe the various ways that
people can cope with their social experiences. Horney believed that these
coping strategies could affect a person's personality and came up with three
types of personalities:2
Aggressive:
Assumes that everyone is the enemy and only looks out for themselves
Compliant:
Sensitive to the needs of others and spontaneously works to meet others'
expectations
Detached:
Seeks to become self-sufficient, creating emotional distance from others to the
point of alienation
Horney's 10
Neurotic Needs
Well-adjusted
individuals use all three coping strategies (toward, away, and against others),
shifting focus depending on internal and external factors. So what is it that
makes these coping strategies neurotic? According to Horney, it is
the overuse of one or more of these interpersonal styles.
1. The Need
for Affection and Approval
Horney
labeled the first need as the neurotic need for affection and approval. This
need includes the desire to be liked, to please other people, and meet the
expectations of others. People with this type of need are extremely sensitive
to rejection and criticism and fear the anger or hostility of others.
2. The Need
for a Partner
The second
need is known as the neurotic need for a partner who will take over one's life.
This involves the need to be centered on a partner. People with this need have
an extreme fear of being abandoned by their partner. Oftentimes, these
individuals place an exaggerated importance on love and believe that having a
partner will resolve all of life’s troubles.
3. The Need
to Restrict One’s Life
The third
need centers on the neurotic need to restrict one's life within narrow borders.
Individuals with this need prefer to remain inconspicuous and unnoticed. They
are undemanding and content with little. They avoid wishing for material
things, often making their own needs secondary and undervaluing
their own talents and abilities
SECTION – C
Answer the following questions in 50 words
each.
9. Nomothetic approach to personality
The nomothetic approach to personality
emphasizes identifying and understanding general principles and traits that can
be applied universally across individuals. It seeks to establish broad patterns
and regularities in human behavior, employing standardized measures and
statistical analyses to uncover common traits. This contrasts with the
idiographic approach, which focuses on the uniqueness of each individual.
Nomothetic methods enable researchers to formulate general theories and make
comparisons across diverse populations, contributing to a more comprehensive
understanding of personality dynamics.
10. Strengths
of case study method
The case
study method offers in-depth insights into complex phenomena, allowing for a
detailed examination of real-life situations. It enables researchers to explore
rare or unique cases, providing a rich context for understanding behavior and
context-specific factors. Additionally, the method allows for a holistic
approach, considering multiple variables and their interplay. Case studies are
particularly useful for generating hypotheses and exploring new areas of
research. They also facilitate a deeper understanding of individual experiences
and can contribute valuable information for theory development. Despite
potential biases and limited generalizability, case studies offer a nuanced and
comprehensive exploration of specific instances.
11. Personification
Personification
is a literary device that attributes human qualities, characteristics, or
emotions to non-human entities, animals, or inanimate objects. This technique
enhances the vividness of descriptions, creating a relatable and engaging
narrative. By anthropomorphizing elements of nature or objects, writers evoke
empathy and understanding from readers, fostering a deeper connection to the
subject matter. Personification is prevalent in various forms of literature,
poetry, and storytelling, allowing authors to infuse life and emotion into
their creations. Through this imaginative device, authors can convey abstract
concepts, communicate complex emotions, and bring a unique depth to their work
by giving human attributes to the non-human elements they describe.
12. Superego
The superego is a crucial component of Sigmund
Freud's psychoanalytic theory, representing the moral and societal aspect of an
individual's psyche. Formed during childhood, it internalizes societal norms,
rules, and values, serving as the conscience. The superego strives for
perfection, aiming to align behavior with moral standards. It interacts with
the ego and id, contributing to the overall psychological balance. Freud
suggested that conflicts between the id's desires, the ego's realistic
considerations, and the superego's moral constraints shape an individual's
personality and behavior.
13. Types of
functional autonomy
Functional autonomy refers to the idea that
adult motives and behaviors may become independent of their original childhood
sources. There are two types of functional autonomy in personality development:
perseverative functional autonomy and propriate functional autonomy.
Perseverative functional autonomy involves the continuation of past behaviors
for their own sake. Propriate functional autonomy refers to actions that have become
personally meaningful, serving an individual's core values or self-concept,
independent of initial external influences.
14. Ayurvedic
body types
Ayurveda,
an ancient Indian holistic healing system, categorizes individuals into three
primary body types or doshas: Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. Vata is associated with
air and space, representing qualities of movement and creativity. Pitta, linked
to fire and water, is linked to digestion and metabolism. Kapha, connected to
earth and water, embodies stability and structure. Each person has a unique
dosha composition, and Ayurvedic practices aim to balance these doshas for
optimal health and well-being.
15. Myers
Briggs Type Indicator
The
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used personality assessment tool
based on psychological preferences outlined by Carl Jung. It categorizes
individuals into one of 16 personality types using four dichotomies:
Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I), Sensing (S) or Intuition (N), Thinking
(T) or Feeling (F), and Judging (J) or Perceiving (P). The resulting
four-letter code, such as INFP or ESTJ, reflects an individual's preferences in
processing information, making decisions, and interacting with the world. The
MBTI is often used in career counseling, team building, and personal
development.
16. Measures to
avoid faking in personality inventory
To minimize
faking on personality inventories, several measures are implemented.
Forced-choice formats present respondents with equally desirable options,
making it challenging to predict the "correct" answer. Social
desirability scales embedded within assessments detect responses aimed at
presenting oneself favorably. Additionally, item response theory models assess
response patterns, identifying inconsistent or exaggerated responses.
Incorporating subtle variations of similar items helps detect response
inconsistencies. Computerized adaptive testing adjusts question difficulty
based on previous responses, preventing manipulation. Finally, clear
instructions emphasizing honesty and the acknowledgment of social desirability
biases encourage respondents to provide more authentic responses, enhancing the
reliability of personality assessments.
17. Criterion
related validity
Criterion-related
validity assesses the extent to which a measurement tool predicts or correlates
with a specific criterion or outcome. It involves comparing scores on the
measurement instrument with scores on an external criterion. There are two
types: concurrent and predictive validity. Concurrent validity evaluates the
relationship between the measure and a criterion assessed simultaneously.
Predictive validity assesses the ability of the measure to predict future
performance or behavior. High correlation indicates good criterion-related
validity. For example, a hiring test demonstrating predictive validity would
successfully predict the job performance of candidates based on their test
scores, enhancing the tool's credibility in employment selection.
18.
Extraversion/Introversion
Extraversion
and introversion are fundamental dimensions of personality in various
psychological theories, including the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Five
Factor Model. Extraversion reflects a preference for sociability,
assertiveness, and seeking stimulation from the external environment.
Extraverts tend to be outgoing, talkative, and energized by social
interactions. Introversion, on the other hand, signifies a preference for
solitude, reflection, and limited social engagement. Introverts often find energy
in quieter, more introspective activities. These traits exist on a spectrum,
with individuals displaying a mix of both tendencies. Balancing and
understanding these dimensions contribute to a more comprehensive understanding
of personality diversity.Top of
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