Explain Ethnicity the reasons of ethnic wars
Ethnic conflict, a form of conflict in which the objectives
of at least one party are defined in ethnic terms, and the conflict, its
antecedents, and possible solutions are perceived along ethnic lines. The
conflict is usually not about ethnic differences themselves but over political,
economic, social, cultural, or territorial matters. Ethnic conflict is one of
the major threats to international peace and security. Conflicts in the
Balkans, Rwanda, Chechnya, Iraq, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Darfur, as
well as in Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip, are among the best-known
and deadliest examples from the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The
destabilization of provinces, states, and, in some cases, even whole regions is
a common consequence of ethnic violence. Ethnic conflicts are often accompanied
by gross human rights violations, such as genocide and crimes against humanity,
and by economic decline, state failure, environmental problems, and refugee
flows. Violent ethnic conflict leads to tremendous human suffering.
Ethnic identity,
ethnicity, and ethnic group
The terms ethnic and ethnicity have their roots in the Greek
word ethnos, which describes a community of common descent. In ethnic conflict
research, the terms ethnic group, communal group, ethnic community, people, and
minority are mostly used interchangeably. Two elements provide the basis to
identify ethnic groups: first, the accentuation of cultural traits and, second,
the sense that those traits distinguish the group from the members of the
society who do not share the differentiating characteristics. Anthony D. Smith,
a scholar of ethnicity and nationalism studies, identified ethnic criteria that
provide the origins of communal identity. Those include shared historical
experiences and memories, myths of common descent, a common culture and
ethnicity, and a link with a historic territory or a homeland, which the group
may or may not currently inhabit. Elements of common culture include language,
religion, laws, customs, institutions, dress, music, crafts, architecture, and
even food. Ethnic communities show signs of solidarity and self-awareness,
which are often expressed by the name the group gives itself.
Ethnic identity is formed by both tangible and intangible
characteristics. Tangible characteristics, such as shared culture or common
visible physical traits, are important because they contribute to the group’s
feeling of identity, solidarity, and uniqueness. As a result, the group
considers perceived and real threats to its tangible characteristics as risks
to its identity. If the group takes steps to confront the threats, its
ethnicity becomes politicized, and the group becomes a political actor by
virtue of its shared identity. On the other side, ethnicity is just as much
based on intangible factors—namely, on what people believe, or are made to believe,
to create a sense of solidarity among members of a particular ethnic group and
to exclude those who are not members.
Theories of ethnic
identity
Although communal identity provides the foundation for the
definition of ethnic groups, disagreement exists over how ethnic identity forms
and how it changes over time. A first school of thought, known as the
primordialist approach, explains ethnicity as a fixed characteristic of
individuals and communities. According to primordialists, ethnicity is embedded
in inherited biological attributes, a long history of practicing cultural
differences, or both. Ethnic identity is seen as unique in intensity and
durability and as an existential factor defining individual self-identification
and communal distinctiveness. Mobilization of ethnic identity and ethnic
nationalism is a powerful tool to engage the group in a political struggle.
Ethnic divisions and ethnic conflict are considered inherent to multiethnic
societies and a common phenomenon.
The primordialist focus on fixed identities, however, fails
to recognize variations in ethnic group formation, ranging from relatively
short-term associations to long-standing, strong, and cohesive groups with
biological and historical roots. To account for these differences, a second
approach, referred to as instrumentalist, was developed, which understands
ethnicity as a device used by individuals and groups to unify, organize, and
mobilize populations to achieve larger goals. Those goals are mostly of a
political nature and include, among others, demands for self-governance,
autonomy, access to resources and power, respect for the group’s identity and
culture, and minority rights. Instrumentalists hold that ethnicity has very
little or no independent ranking outside the political process and is in its
character comparable to other political affiliations such as ideological
beliefs or party membership. According to instrumentalists, ethnicity is a
result of personal choice and mostly independent from the situational context
or the presence of cultural and biological traits. Ethnic conflict arises if
ethnic groups compete for the same goal—notably power, access to resources, or
territory. The interests of a society’s elite class play an important role in mobilizing
ethnic groups to engage in ethnic conflicts. Ethnic conflict is thus similar to
other political interest conflicts.
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