IGNOU MPC 001 Cognitive Psychology, Learning and Memory Solved Assignment 2023-24 | MA Psychology
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NOTE: All questions are
compulsory.
SECTION – A
Answer the following questions in 1000 words each.
Q1. Discuss the
meaning and aspects of creativity. Explain the Investment and Confluence theory
of creativity.
The most
advanced thought process, creativity, involves production of uncommon and novel
ideas that are highly relevant to the situation. Creativity is defined as
something different from intelligence and as a parallel construct to
intelligence, but it differs from intelligence in that it is not restricted to
cognitive or intellectual functioning or behaviour. Instead, it is concerned
with a complex mix of motivational conditions, personality factors,
environmental conditions, chance factors, and even products (Michalko, 1998).
Creativity
is a goal directed thinking which is unusual, novel and useful. Many of such
creative thinking become so important that they influence the whole human
civilisation and are called as historical creativity. The Mona Lisa, the laws
of thermodynamics, the laws of motion, the theory of relativity are some of the
ideas that were never thought before and changed the human civilisation
altogether in a great way in their respective spheres of life. Although we can
accept its existence and importance, it has been a highly difficult task for
the researchers to define creativity. Newell, Shaw and Simon (1963) have
explained the nature of creativity on the basis of following four criteria: a)
Novelty and usefulness b) Rejects previously accepted ideas c) Requires intense
motivation and persistence d) Results from organising the unclear situation in
a coherent, clear and new way.
Sternberg
(2006) reports five commonalities in the research of creativity. These are:
1)
Creativity involves thinking that aims at producing ideas or products that are
relatively novel and that are, in some respect, compelling.
2)
Creativity has some domain-specific and domain-general elements in the sense
that it needs some specific knowledge, but there are certain elements of
creativity that cut across different domains.
3)
Creativity is measureable, at least to some extent.
4)
Creativity can be developed and promoted.
5) Creativity is not highly rewarded in
practice, as it is supposed to be in theory.
Sternberg
and Lubart (1999) define creativity as the ability to produce work that is both
novel (i.e. original, unexpected) and appropriate (i.e. useful concerning tasks
constrains). Runco (2007) categorised these definitions of creativity as involving
the creation of something new and useful and calls them as “products
definitions” of creativity. However, he thought that creative thinking did not
essentially require tangible creative products; rather the process should be
more focused in defining creativity.
Creativity and Problem Solving Studies in
cognitive psychology have tried to understand the process of creative thinking.
These researches assumed that creativity is just extraordinary results of
ordinary processes (Smith, Ward & Finke 1995).
The process of creativity is thought to have following four
characteristics:
1) It is
imaginative involving imagination, since it is the process of generating
something original. 2) It is purposeful, that is, creativity is imagination put
into action towards an end.
3) It produces something original in relation
to one’s own previous work, to their peer group or to anyone’s previous output
in a particular field.
4) It has
value in respect to the objective it was applied for.
Creativity
involves not only the generation of ideas, but also evaluation of them, and
deciding which one is the most adequate one. Beghetto and Kaufman (2007)
conceptualised creativity in three different ways. They defined creativity as
novel and personally meaningful interpretation of experiences, actions, and
events. However, the novelty and meaningfulness of these interpretations need
not require to be original or (even meaningful) to others. Indeed, the judgment
of novelty and meaningfulness that constitutes creativity is an intrapersonal
judgment. This intrapersonal judgment is what distinguishes creativity from
other forms of creative expressions. There are two types of creativeity (i)
little-c (or everyday) creativity and (ii) BigC (or eminent) creativity. The
latter two forms of creativity rely on interpersonal and historical judgments
of novelty, appropriateness, and lasting impact.
Investment and
Confluence Theory of Creativity
Sternberg
(2006) has proposed investment and confluence theory to understand creativity.
According to the investment theory, creativity requires a confluence of six
distinct but interrelated resources: intellectual abilities, knowledge, styles
of thinking, personality, motivation, and environment. Although levels of these
resources are sources of individual differences, often the decision to use a
resource is a more important source of individual differences.
Intellectual skills: Three intellectual skills
are particularly important: (a) the synthetic skill to see problems in new ways
and to escape the bounds of conventional thinking, (b) the analytic skill to
recognise which of one’s ideas are worth pursuing and which are not, and (c)
the practical–contextual skill to know how to persuade others of—to sell other
people on—the value of one’s ideas. The confluence of these three skills is
also important. Analytic skills used in the absence of the other two skills
results in powerful critical, but not creative, thinking. Synthetic skill used
in the absence of the other two skills results in new ideas that are not
subjected to the scrutiny required to improve them and make them work.
Practical–contextual skill in the absence of the other two skills may result in
societal acceptance of ideas not because the ideas are good, but rather,
because the ideas have been well and powerfully presented.
Knowledge:
On the one hand, one needs to know enough about a field to move it forward. One
cannot move beyond where a field is if one does not know where it is. On the
other hand, knowledge about a field can result in a closed and entrenched
perspective, resulting in a person’s not moving beyond the way in which he or
she has seen problems in the past. Knowledge thus can help, or it can hinder
creativity.
Thinking
styles: Thinking styles are preferred ways of using one’s skills. In essence,
they are decisions about how to deploy the skills available to a person. With
regard to thinking styles, a legislative style is particularly important for
creativity, that is, a preference for thinking and a decision to think in new
ways. This preference needs to be distinguished from the ability to think
Creatively:
Someone may like to think along new lines, but not think well, or vice versa.
It also helps to become a major creative thinker, if one is able to think
globally as well as locally, distinguishing the forest from the trees and
thereby recognising which questions are important and which ones are not.
Personality:
Numerous research investigations have supported the importance of certain
personality attributes for creative functioning. These attributes include, but
are not limited to, willingness to overcome obstacles, willingness to take
sensible risks, willingness to tolerate ambiguity, and self-efficacy. In
particular, buying low and selling high typically means defying the crowd, so
that one has to be willing to stand up to conventions if one wants to think and
act in creative ways. Often creative people seek opposition; that is, they
decide to think in ways that countervail how others think. Note that none of
the attributes of creative thinking is fixed. One can decide to overcome
obstacles, take sensible risks, and so forth.
Motivation: Intrinsic, task-focused motivation
is also essential to creativity. The research of Amabile (1983) and others has
shown the importance of such motivation for creative work and has suggested
that people rarely do truly creative work in an area unless they really love
what they are doing and focus on the work rather than the potential rewards.
Motivation is not something inherent in a person: One decides to be motivated
by one thing or another. Often, people who need to work in a certain area that
does not particularly interest them will decide that, given the need to work in
that area, they had better find a way to make it interest them. They will then
look for some angle on the work they need to do that makes this work appeal to
rather than bore them.
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Q2. Explain
Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence.
The Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence or Three Forms of Intelligence,formulated by psychologist Robert
Sternberg, aims to go against the psychometric approach to
intelligence and take a more cognitive approach, which leaves it to the
category of the cognitive-contextual theories The three meta components
are also called triarchic components.
Sternberg's
definition of human intelligence is "(a) mental activity directed toward
purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments
relevant to one's life"Thus, Sternberg viewed intelligence as how well an
individual deals with environmental changes throughout their lifespan.
Sternberg's theory comprises three parts: componential, experiential and
practical.
Sternberg
associated the workings of the mind with a series of components. These
components he labeled the metacomponents, performance components, and
knowledge-acquisition components.
The metacomponents are
executive processes used in problem solving and decision
making that involve the majority of managing our mind. They tell the mind
how to act. Metacomponents are also sometimes referred to as a homunculus.
A homunculus is a fictitious or metaphorical "person" inside our head
that controls our actions, and which is often seen to invite an infinite
regress of homunculi controlling each other.
Sternberg's
next set of components, performance components, are the processes that
actually carry out the actions the metacomponents dictate. These are the basic
processes that allow us to do tasks, such as perceiving problems in our
long-term memory, perceiving relations between objects, and applying
relations to another set of terms.
The last
set of components, knowledge-acquisition components, are used in obtaining
new information. These components complete tasks that involve selectively
choosing relevant information from a mix of information, some of it relevant
and some of it irrelevant. These components can also be used to selectively
combine the various pieces of information they have gathered. Gifted
individuals are proficient in using these components because they are able to
learn new information at a greater rate.
Whereas
Sternberg explains that the basic information processing components underlying
the three parts of his triarchic theory are the same, different contexts and
different tasks require different kinds of intelligence.
Componential – analytical subtheory
This form
of intelligence focuses on academic proficiency
Sternberg
associated the componential subtheory with analytical giftedness. This is
one of three types of giftedness that Sternberg recognizes. Analytical giftedness
is influential in being able to take apart problems and being able to see
solutions not often seen. Unfortunately, individuals with only this type are
not as adept at creating unique ideas of their own. This form of giftedness is
the type that is tested most often.
Experiential – creative subtheory
This form
of intelligence focuses on "capacity to be intellectually flexible and
innovative.
The
experiential subtheory is the second stage of the triarchic theory. This stage
deals mainly with how well a task is performed with regard to how familiar it
is. Sternberg splits the role of experience into two parts: novelty and
automation.
A novel situation
is one that has not been experienced before. People that are adept at managing
a novel situation can take the task and find new ways of solving it that the
majority of people would not notice.
A process
that has been automated has been performed multiple times and can now
be done with little or no extra thought. Once a process is automatized, it can
be run in parallel with the same or other processes. The problem with novelty
and automation is that being skilled in one component does not ensure that you
are skilled in the other.
The
experiential subtheory also correlates with another one of Sternberg's proposed
types of giftedness. Synthetic giftedness is seen
in creativity, intuition, and a study of the arts. People with
synthetic giftedness are not often seen with the highest IQs because
there are not currently any tests that can sufficiently measure these
attributes, but synthetic giftedness is especially useful in creating new ideas
to create and solve new problems. Sternberg also associated another one of his
students, "Barbara", to the synthetic giftedness. Barbara did not
perform as well as Alice on the tests taken to get into school, but was
recommended to Yale University based on her exceptional creative and
intuitive skills. Barbara was later very valuable in creating new ideas for
research.
Practical - contextual subtheory
Sternberg's
third subtheory of intelligence, called practical or contextual, "deals
with the mental activity involved in attaining fit
to context". Through the three processes of adaptation, shaping,
and selection, individuals create an ideal fit between themselves and their
environment. This type of intelligence is often referred to as "street
smarts."
Adaptation occurs
when one makes a change within oneself in order to better adjust to one's
surroundings.For example, when the weather changes and temperatures drop,
people adapt by wearing extra layers of clothing to remain warm.
Shaping occurs
when one changes their environment to better suit one's needs.
A teacher
may invoke the new rule of raising hands to speak to ensure that the lesson is
taught with least possible disruption.
The process
of selection is undertaken when a completely new alternate
environment is found to replace the previous, unsatisfying environment to meet
the individual's goals.
For
instance, immigrants leave their lives in their homeland countries where they endure
economical and social hardships and go to other countries in search of a better
and less strained life.
The
effectiveness with which an individual fits to his or her environment and
contends with daily situations reflects degree of intelligence. Sternberg's
third type of giftedness, called practical giftedness, involves the ability to
apply synthetic and analytic skills to everyday situations. Practically gifted
people are superb in their ability to succeed in any setting. An example
of this type of giftedness is "Celia". Celia did not have outstanding
analytical or synthetic abilities, but she "was highly successful in
figuring out what she needed to do in order to succeed in an academic
environment. She knew what kind of research was valued, how to get articles
into journals, how to impress people at job interviews, and the
like".Celia's contextual intelligence allowed her to use these skills to
her best advantage.
Sternberg
also acknowledges that an individual is not restricted to having excellence in
only one of these three intelligences. Many people may possess an integration
of all three and have high levels of all three intelligences.
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Q3. Discuss
critically the Innateness theory of language acquisition.
The debate
on whether language acquisition is mainly determined by innate predispositions
or environmental factors has been of interest to many researchers for decades
now. Various schools of thoughts have emerged over the years in an attempt to
explain how human beings acquire their language. In all these, a major concern
has been to comprehensively understand how the language abilities are picked up
by very young children after only inputting little efforts towards acquiring
the language under normal circumstances (Harley, 2004). The capacity to speak
and be able to communicate with others has always been carried with a lot of
importance especially in the contemporary world, yet controversy continues to
persist regarding how this important component of life is acquired. It is,
therefore, the purpose of this paper to critically discuss the available
evidence supporting innate and learning approaches to language acquisition, and
their potential criticisms
Language
acquisition can be described as the process by which individuals attain the
ability and competence to perceive, generate and employ words to comprehend and
communicate (Harley, 2004). This unique ability entails acquiring varied
capacities, including a wide-ranging vocabulary, grammar, semantics, and
phonetics. The capacity to acquire and use these components in our daily
communications is a fundamental feature that differentiates human beings from
other closely linked primates and other animals.
According
to Guasti (2004), the fact that animals have a wide range of communication
channels to use cannot be denied, but this forms cannot be in any way qualify
to be called languages since they have an inadequate variety of
non-syntactically prearranged vocabulary which lacks in consistence and
cross-cultural variation.
This
notwithstanding, it still amazes many how humans, especially infants, are able
to acquire language faculties with much ease. Behrens (2009) posits that
“…there must be a genetic component in this capacity because every … child is
able to learn language, and there must be an environmental component because no
one is born with a specific language.
Arguments for Innate Acquisition of Language
The
approach that language is acquired through innate predispositions is viewed as
largely traditional, with many of its proponents arguing that the mechanisms
involved in are predetermined by biological and evolutionary endowments rather
than environmental predispositions (Guasti, 2004). Plato felt that language
acquisition, by any standard, was innate since it is beyond our realms of
understanding to structure how an infant as young as one year old is able to
comprehend the facets of language.
Other
advocates such as the Sanskrit grammarians argued that language was God-given,
implying that it is innately acquired (Guasti, 2004). According to Behme &
Helene (2008), proponents of innateness “…postulate a species-specific language
faculty as a largely genetically determined part of our biological endowment
and claims that facts about language acquisition support this view” .
Noam
Chomsky, one of the most vocal advocates for innate acquisition of language,
argued that many features of the linguistic capacity of a well seasoned speaker
cannot be elucidated using a data-driven broad-spectrum learning mechanism.
According
to this particular proponent, human beings must be endowed with an innate
module for them to actively yield or generate a particular language through
direct interaction with a myriad of presented experiences (Behme & Helene,
2008).
The
advocate’s argument finds strength in the interpretation of systematic
empirical studies, which reveals that not only does language acquisition in
infants happens at a faster pace, but also has some well structured
distinguishing phases whose order and time-frame seems principally independent
from environmental influences.
What’s
more, Chomsky argued that all children share the same inner limitations which
distinguish intently the grammar they are able to construct. Chomsky concluded
that the momentum and accuracy of language acquirement leaves no factual
substitute to the conclusion that the young child, one way or another, “has the
concepts available before experience with language and is basically learning
labels for concepts that are already a part of his or her conceptual apparatus”
According to the theory of generative grammar, the syntactic knowledge acquired
by children or other language learners is, by any standards, underdetermined by
the environmental input. This implies that language is innately acquired. The
proponents of this theory argue that neither biological processes nor cognitive
orientations of an individual can literally be equated to learning
This theory
corresponds with the Nativist Model, which presupposes that language learning
or acquisition is not really something that the youngster does; rather,
acquisition occurs to the child when he or she is placed in a suitable
surroundings, much as the child’s physical body develops and matures in a
predetermined manner when proper diet and environmental stimulation are
provided (Chomsky, 2000). As such, language can only be acquired innately.
The innate
approach, therefore, assumes that language acquisition is rapid and
instantaneous, not mentioning the fact that acquisition occurs without direct
instruction, and can also occur in spite of inadequate input. Instantaneous
acquisition of language, according to the proponents, implies that the process
is effortless, error-free, and occurs without the child passing through the
various developmental phases .
In arguing
that acquisition occurs without direct instruction, the proponents of this
school of thought implies that there is no negative evidence involved in
acquiring language, a preposition that further reinforces the fact that
children do not make errors and therefore do not get negative evidence (Morgan
et al, 1995). Ultimately, acquisition becomes innate.
Criticism
The innate
approach to language acquisition, despite receiving support from some of the
most refined scholars and philosophers, has a variety of setbacks. First, it is
a well known fact that children go through precise developmental phases, and
they do make systematic errors as they negotiate these phases (Stemmer, 1987).
Available
literature reveals that children undergo various changes before they can begin
to drift near to adult-like capacities in comprehending and generating a first
language. For instance, Children must first break into the communication stream
before even attempting to associate the words with any particular meaning.
Children
must then learn to combine the words or phrases in specific ways before
engaging in another phase of understanding more intricate syntactic
combinations. In all these phases, children make numerous errors before
commanding the language (Harley, 2001). For instance, children engage in
over-extensions of actual meaning of words, and the word ‘cow’ may be applied
to various animals, including the actual cows, zebras, donkeys, horses, among
others.
By any
standards, the argument that children do not get negative evidence goes against
what has been empirically researched. In the course of development, youngsters
are known to espouse grammars and other language aspects that appear
over-generalized.
As such,
“…a logical alternative is that children receive negative evidence: corrective
feedback providing information that certain sentences are not acceptable”
(Morgan et al, 1995, p. 18). Such an intervention, according to the critics of
innateness approach, is fundamentally important as it permits children to
recover from the common mistakes of overgeneralizations.
Arguments for Learning Approach
This school
of thought is of the opinion that the human cognitive structure is adequate to
learn language devoid of postulating extra factors or influences such as an
inborn language system (Harley, 2001). Many of the proponents of this school
simply argue that language is learned through positive interactions with the
environment.
This
approach is more flexible to the notion of language acquisition, with some
proponents suggesting that the capacity to acquire language or the deep-seated
hunger to draw in large amounts of verbiage is inborn and coincides with the
child’s developmental phase, but the whole process of acquisition depends upon
the immediate environment in which the youngster resides (Harley, 2001). This
is a more associative approach as it appears to associate a particular
ingredient – the environment – with language learning.
SECTION – B
Answer the following questions in 400
words each.
Q4. Describe
the various types of intelligence tests.
Types of Intelligence Tests:
1. Individual Tests
These tests
are administered to one individual at a time. These cover age group from 2
years to 18 years.
These are:
(a) The
Binet- Simon Tests,
(b) Revised
Tests by Terman,
(c) Mental Scholastic Tests of Burt, and
(d)
Wechsler Test.
2. Group
Tests:
Group tests
are administered to a group of people Group tests had their birth in America –
when the intelligence of the recruits who joined the army in the First World
War was to be calculated.
These are:
(a) The
Army Alpha and Beta Test,
(b)
Terman’s Group Tests, and
(c) Otis
Self- Administrative Tests.
Among the group tests there are two types:
(i) Verbal,
and
(ii)
Non-Verbal.
Verbal
tests are those which require the use of language to answer the test items.
3.
Performance:
These tests
are administered to the illiterate persons. These tests generally involve the
construction of certain patterns or solving problems in terms of concrete
material.
Some of the
famous tests are:
(a) Koh’s
Block Design Test,
(b) The
Cube Construction Tests, and
(c) The
Pass along Tests.
1. Individual Tests:
The first
tests that were prepared were individual. The ideal of preparing group test was
motivated by economy and mass-scale testing work. Binet’s test was individual,
and so was Terman-Merril Stanford Revision. Individual tests are most reliable
but these consume more time and energy. These are, however, useful in making
case-studies or individual studies of behaviour problems or backwardness.
The tests
prepared in the beginning were individual verbal i.e., where some sort of
language (the mother-tongue of the child) was used. Each question in
Simon-Binet or Stanford Revision test is in verbal form. The child has to read
the question or listen to the question and answer in language.
But suppose
the child is not fully conversant with the language of the examiner, or he is
illiterate. In that case verbal tests do not serve the purpose. Hence
non-verbal or performance tests have been prepared. Here the tasks set up
require the child to do ‘something’ rather than reply a question.
The child
may, for instance, fit in a wooden board with depressions in some geometrical
forms, some wooden shapes like triangles or rectangles or circles. He may put
some cubes in descending or ascending order of size. He may assemble certain
disintegrated parts to form full designs or pictures. No language is used here.
Instructions also can be had through demonstration or action.
A number of
performance tests have been prepared. The most important are:
1.
Alexander’s Pass-a-long test.
2. Koh’s
Block Design test.
3. Collin
and Drever’s Performance Tests.
4.
Weschlers Performance Test.
5. Terman
and Merill’s Performance Test.
6. Kent’s
Performance Test.
Kent’s test
is used for clinical purposes. It consists of five oral tests and seven written
tests, each requiring one minute.
Individual
performance tests have the disadvantage that these take a lot of time. Their
reliability is also questioned on the ground that temporary response sets or
work habits may play a major role in determining score. The habits rewarded in
one test may lead to a low score or more scores on another.
Again, the
intelligence measured by performance tests is not quite the same as tested by
Binet and others. Some psychologists have even questioned whether performance
test batteries measure general intelligence at all. Further details about
performance tests are given below elsewhere.
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2. Group Tests:
These are
more helpful as these deal with large masses of subjects such as in schools,
industry, army and public. Under favourable administering conditions these are
reliable and have high predictive validity, and can be compared favourably with
individual tests.
The Army
Alpha and Beta were the most prominent tests in the beginning, Spearman
constructed group tests in which questions were read out to the candidates.
Cyril, Burt prepared group test comprising of large number of sections each
section being a large number of problems of one particular kind.
His
group-test no. 23 comprises 50 same-opposite problems, 30 sentence completion
problems, 30 mixed sentences, 25 analogies and 18 reasoning problems.
A specimen
of Burt’s graded reasoning test is given in Appendix VII.
In the
‘Omnibus’ test or ‘Richardson’s ‘Simplex Text’, the different sections are not
timed separately, but there is a time limit for the whole test.
Army Beta test
is the most widely known group performance test.
In general,
group tests have the following characteristics:
(i) Most of
the group-tests have been standardised, and these are commonly used in
educational institutions in the western countries. The directions and manuals
for examiners have been worked out, so that even a layman can administer
these.
(ii) Most
of the test items in group verbal tests are linguistic in character. Some of
the test items include problems requiring reasoning about numbers, or geometrical
forms.
(iii) Some
group verbal tests have been used in measuring scholastic aptitude also.
(iv) These
are convenient in administration and scoring.
Q 5. Explain algorithms and heuristics as
strategies of problem solving.
A heuristic
is a principle with broad application, essentially an educated guess about
something. We use heuristics all the time, for example, when deciding what
groceries to buy from the supermarket, when looking for a library book, when
choosing the best route to drive through town to avoid traffic congestion, and
so on. Heuristics can be thought of as aids to decision making; they allow us
to reach a solution without a lot of cognitive effort or time.
Most people
think that list B is more likely, probably because list B looks more random,
and matches — or is “representative of” — our ideas about randomness, but
statisticians know that any pattern of four girls and four boys is
mathematically equally likely. Whether a boy or girl is born first has no
bearing on what sex will be born second; these are independent events, each
with a 50:50 chance of being a boy or a girl. The problem is that we have a
schema of what randomness should be like, which does not always match what is
mathematically the case. Similarly, people who see a flipped coin come up
“heads” five times in a row will frequently predict, and perhaps even wager
money, that “tails” will be next. This behaviour is known as the gambler’s
fallacy. Mathematically, the gambler’s fallacy is an error: the likelihood of
any single coin flip being “tails” is always 50%, regardless of how many times
it has come up “heads” in the past.
The
representativeness heuristic may explain why we judge people on the basis of
appearance. Suppose you meet your new next-door neighbour, who drives a loud
motorcycle, has many tattoos, wears leather, and has long hair. Later, you try
to guess their occupation. What comes to mind most readily? Are they a teacher?
Insurance salesman? IT specialist? Librarian? Drug dealer? The
representativeness heuristic will lead you to compare your neighbour to the
prototypes you have for these occupations and choose the one that they seem to
represent the best. Thus, your judgment is affected by how much your neibour
seems to resemble each of these groups. Sometimes these judgments are accurate,
but they often fail because they do not account for base rates, which is
the actual frequency with which these groups exist. In this case, the group
with the lowest base rate is probably drug dealer.
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Q6. Describe
the goals and research methods in cognitive psychology.
This
consists of the various research methods that we use in cognitive psychology.
Every research has a goal, and it is achieved through the appropriate
methodology. Let us see what the goals of the research are.
1-Goals of
Research-To better understand the specific methods used by cognitive
psychologists, one must grasp the goals of research in cognitive psychology.
Briefly, those goals include data gathering, data analysis, theory development,
hypothesis formulation, hypothesis testing, and perhaps even application to
settings outside the research environment. However, most cognitive
psychologists want to understand more than cognition. They also seek to
understand the how and the way of thinking. That is, researchers seek ways to
explain cognition as well as describe it. To move beyond descriptions,
cognitive psychologists must leap from what is observed directly to what can be
inferred regarding observations.
2-Distinctive
Research Methods: Cognitive psychologists use various methods to explore
how humans think. These methods include
1. laboratory
or other controlled experiments,
2. Psychobiological
research,
3. Self-reports,
case studies, naturalistic observation, and
Computer
simulations and artificial intelligence. Each method offers distinct advantages
and disadvantages.
3-Experiments
on Human Behavior: In controlled experimental designs, an experimenter
conducts research, typically in a laboratory setting. The experimenter controls
as many aspects of the experimental situation as possible. There are basically
two kinds of variables in any given experiment – independent variables and
dependent variables. The irrelevant variables are held constant and are called
control variables.
4-Psychobiological
Research: Through psychobiological research, investigators study the
relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and situations.
The various specific techniques used in psychobiological research generally
fall into three categories. The first category is that of techniques for
studying an individual’s brain post-mortem, relating the individual’s cognitive
function prior to death to observable features of the brain. The second
category is techniques for studying images showing structures of or activities
in the brain of an individual who is known to have a particular cognitive
deficit.
5-Self-Reports,
Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation: -Individual experiments and
psychobiological studies often focus on the precise specification of discrete
aspects of cognition across individuals. To obtain richly textured information
about how particular individuals think in a broad range of contexts,
researchers may use self-reports (an individual’s own account of cognitive
processes), case studies (in-depth studies of individuals), and naturalistic
observation (detailed studies of cognitive performance in everyday situations
and no laboratory contexts). On the one hand, experimental research is most
useful for testing hypotheses. On the other hand, research based on qualitative
methods is often particularly useful for the formulation of hypotheses. These
methods are also useful to generate descriptions of rare events or processes
that we have no other way to measure.
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Q7. Describe
the functions of language.
1. Expressive and Communicative Functions:
The most
basic function of language as we can guess, is that of the expressive function,
an attempt to express a sudden change of state, fear, delight, pain or
confusion. Whatever it is, such an expression is not a deliberate, conscious
expression, but a spontaneous, immediate response not directed towards any
other object.
Incidentally,
in many cases this also serves as a communication to other members of the group
or species, particularly in situations of danger. Most probably, these
functions are automatic instinctual functions, and found in lower organisms
also. However, at the human level, the communicative role assumes more crucial
importance
2. Interpretative Functions:
It may be
seen that when a particular occurrence or expression serves as a stimulus to
others it also serves a function of becoming aware of interpreting a particular
situation. Thus, the cry of one animal in the face of danger is interpreted by
other members of the species. The interpretative function is very obvious at
the human level.
The
interpretative function serves to restore a state of cognitive equilibrium.
While the stimulus itself creates a condition of uncertainty or novelty, the
interpretation serves to clarify the situation and restore the equilibrium.
Such an interpretation helps to place the information in an appropriate
position or slot in one’s cognitive world.
Thus, when
an offspring gets separated from the mother and suddenly finds her again the
sound that may be made is different from the one that would have been made if a
strange animal is seen. The sounds on the two occasions, may be phonetically
similar, but there is a difference in the meanings of the two sounds meaning in
a very elementary sense.
One may
question whether one can attribute qualities like meaning, cognition, etc. to
animals. But one may also ask why not? Human bigotry particularly, that of the
social scientists has prevented them from being objective and honest. Thus, the
second major function of the language is to help the organism to interpret and
organise cognitive experiences and position them in one’s cognitive world.
3. Control Function:
When one
talks of the function of control, there emerges a social dimension apart from
the individual dimension. Gradually, as associations get established between
certain states of existence and a stimulus on the one hand and certain sounds,
there results a reproducibility of a reaction. Thus, the child cries when he is
hungry or suffering from pain. This cry in turn makes the mother, or even the
animal mother to rush and help. Here is the beginning of control.
The cry
brings the mother’s attention and hope, and in later years the attention of
those who are dear and close and those who are in a position to support. This
is the first experience of mastering the environment and ability to control.
Here it may be seen that at simple levels, this control function may not be
deliberate and conscious, but as one grows and the environment becomes more
organised, the control function of language becomes more and more central.
All of us
feel comfortable to talk to a person if we know his name. Whenever we meet a
familiar face, we feel comfortable if we can remember his name. The importance
of words, slogans, and ‘clarion calls’ in controlling the people and mob is too
well-known to need any extensive discussion.
4. The Functions of Remembering and Thinking:
Imagine our
being able to think and remember without the use of words. It is almost
impossible to recall or remember or think without the use of words and
therefore, language. It is language, which helps us to encode experiences,
store them and retrieve and decode. It is language, which helps us to translate
experiences into thought and engage in processes of different types.
Q8. Explain the
various speech disorders.
Speech
disorders or speech impairments are a type of communication
disorder in which normal speech is disrupted.This can
mean fluency disorders
like stuttering, cluttering or lisps. Someone who is unable
to speak due to a speech disorder is considered mute.Speech skills are
vital to social relationships and learning, and delays or disorders that relate
to developing these skills can impact individuals function. For many
children and adolescents, this can present as issues with academics.Speech
disorders affect roughly 11.5% of the US population, and 5% of the primary
school population.Speech is a complex process that requires precise timing,
nerve and muscle control, and as a result is susceptible to impairments. A
person who has a stroke, an accident or birth
defect may have speech and language problems.
Classification
Classifying
speech into normal and disordered is more problematic than it first seems. By
strict classification, only 5% to 10% of the population has a completely normal
manner of speaking (with respect to all parameters) and healthy voice; all
others have one disorder or another.
There are
three different levels of classification when determining the magnitude and
type of a speech disorder and the proper treatment or therapy:
·
Sounds the patient can produce
·
Phonemic – can be produced easily;
used meaningfully and constructively
·
Phonetic – produced only upon
request; not used consistently, meaningfully, or constructively; not used in
connected speech
·
Stimulate sounds
·
Easily stimulated
·
Stimulate after demonstration and
probing (i.e. with a tongue depressor)
·
Cannot produce the sound
·
Cannot be produced voluntarily
·
No production ever observed
Types of disorder
Apraxia of
speech may result from stroke or progressive illness, and involves
inconsistent production of speech sounds and rearranging of sounds in a word
("potato" may become "topato" and next "totapo").
Production of words becomes more difficult with effort, but common phrases may
sometimes be spoken spontaneously without effort.
Cluttering,
a speech and fluency disorder characterized primarily by a rapid rate of
speech, which makes speech difficult to understand.
Developmental
verbal dyspraxia also known as childhood apraxia of speech.
Dysarthria is
a weakness or paralysis of speech muscles caused by damage to the nerves or
brain. Dysarthria is often caused by strokes, Parkinson's
disease,ALS, head or neck injuries, surgical accident, or cerebral palsy.
Aphasia
Dysprosody is
an extremely rare neurological speech disorder. It is characterized by
alterations in intensity, in the timing of utterance segments, and in rhythm,
cadence, and intonation of words. The changes to the duration,
the fundamental frequency, and the intensity of tonic and atonic syllables
of the sentences spoken, deprive an individual's particular speech of its
characteristics. The cause of dysprosody is usually associated with
neurological pathologies such as brain vascular accidents,
cranioencephalic traumatisms, and brain tumors.
SECTION – C
Answer the following questions in 50
words each.
Q9.
Simultaneous and Successive processing
Simultaneous
and successive processing are cognitive strategies that describe how
individuals perceive and organize information. Simultaneous processing involves
analyzing multiple elements simultaneously, emphasizing holistic perception. It
enables quick comprehension of complex patterns and is crucial in tasks like
visualizing relationships. Successive processing, on the other hand, involves
sequential analysis of information, focusing on one element at a time. It is
effective in tasks requiring step-by-step processing, like reading and
problem-solving. Both processing styles play essential roles in cognitive
functioning, influencing learning and problem-solving strategies. Understanding
an individual's preference for simultaneous or successive processing can aid
educators and psychologists in tailoring instructional methods for optimal
cognitive development.
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Q10. Concept of
IQ
The concept
of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a measure designed to assess cognitive
abilities and intellectual potential. Developed by Alfred Binet in the early
20th century, IQ is calculated through standardized tests that evaluate
problem-solving, memory, and logical reasoning skills. A typical IQ score has a
mean of 100, with a standard deviation of 15 points. The score indicates an
individual's performance relative to their age group, with higher scores
suggesting above-average intellectual abilities. While IQ tests are widely used
in educational and clinical settings, they have faced criticism for potential
cultural bias and limitations in capturing the full spectrum of human
intelligence and creativity.
Q11.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, a component of Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences theory,
refers to a person's ability to control and manipulate their body movements
with precision and coordination. Individuals high in bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence often excel in activities requiring physical skill, such as
sports, dance, or manual labor. This intelligence involves a keen awareness of
one's body and its capabilities, allowing individuals to express themselves
through movement. Athletes, dancers, and artisans frequently exhibit strong
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Educational approaches that acknowledge and
nurture this intelligence involve hands-on learning experiences, physical
activities, and interactive projects to cater to the unique strengths and
talents of those with a pronounced bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
Q12.
Single-system and dual-system hypotheses in multilingualism
In
multilingualism, the single-system hypothesis posits that all languages a
person speaks are stored and processed within a unified cognitive system,
sharing resources without significant interference. In contrast, the
dual-system hypothesis suggests that each language is represented and processed
independently, minimizing interference. Research on these hypotheses examines
how multilingual individuals manage and access linguistic information,
exploring factors like language proficiency, context, and cognitive demands.
The debate remains dynamic, with evidence supporting both perspectives.
Understanding these hypotheses aids in comprehending the intricate nature of multilingual
cognition, influencing language acquisition theories, educational practices,
and bilingualism's cognitive implications.
Q13. Aphasia
Aphasia is
a language disorder resulting from brain damage, often due to stroke or head
injury. It impairs a person's ability to understand, produce, or use language.
The severity and specific language deficits vary, affecting speech, writing,
and comprehension. Aphasia doesn't impact intelligence but hinders effective
communication. Speech therapy and rehabilitation aim to improve language skills
and help individuals adapt to their linguistic challenges.
Q14. Functional
fixedness
Functional
fixedness is a cognitive bias where individuals struggle to see unconventional
uses for familiar objects. This mindset limits problem-solving creativity as
people tend to fixate on standard functions. Overcoming functional fixedness
involves thinking outside conventional roles, fostering innovative
problem-solving. It's a key concept in understanding cognitive flexibility and
the challenges individuals may face when approaching problems with preconceived
notions about the use of objects or ideas.
Q15. Cultural
blocks to problem solving
Cultural
blocks to problem-solving refer to obstacles rooted in cultural perspectives
that hinder individuals' ability to find solutions. These may include ingrained
beliefs, societal norms, or communication styles that limit creativity or
acceptance of diverse ideas. Recognizing and overcoming cultural blocks is
essential for fostering inclusive problem-solving environments, allowing
diverse perspectives to contribute to innovative and effective solutions.
Q16. Problem
space hypothesis
The problem
space hypothesis, proposed in cognitive psychology, suggests that
problem-solving involves mentally representing a problem as a "problem
space" with various states and operators. States represent different
possible conditions, and operators are the actions to transition between
states. Effective problem-solving requires navigating this space, exploring
possibilities, and finding a path to the solution. This hypothesis provides a
conceptual framework for understanding the cognitive processes involved in
tackling complex problems.
Q17.
Characteristics of difficult problems
Difficult
problems often exhibit characteristics that challenge conventional
problem-solving approaches. They may involve high complexity, ambiguous
information, and multiple variables. Additionally, difficult problems may lack
clear solution paths, require creative thinking, and demand insights from
various domains. Tackling such problems typically demands perseverance,
flexibility, and the ability to embrace uncertainty. Overcoming difficulty
often involves breaking down the problem, considering diverse perspectives, and
employing innovative strategies to navigate the complexities inherent in these
challenging scenarios.
Q18. Luchin’s
water jar problem
Luchin's
water jar problem is a classic cognitive psychology experiment where
participants solve a series of water jar puzzles. The challenge involves
transferring a specific amount of water using a set of jars with different
capacities. Luchin's experiment explores how individuals approach
problem-solving, revealing insights into mental set and fixedness in tackling
similar problems.
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