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IGNOU MAW 001 Important Questions with Answers
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Q.1 What are the similarities between human welfare and animal welfare?
Animal welfare can be applied to all animal species,
sometimes preceded by ‘farm’ or ‘companion’ or other words to denote to which
group of animals the term is specifically referring. In general, however, we
are concerned about the welfare of animals that are managed in some way by humans,
and where we have particular responsibilities for their care. In the past,
greatest concern about animal welfare has been related to livestock production
in agriculture, and thus ‘farm animal welfare’ has received the most attention.
Over time, welfare issues pertaining to working, performing, companion, zoo and
lab animals have also received attention.
There is no clear scientific division about which species may
be sentient and therefore for which we should be concerned, i.e. for which
species is animal welfare relevant and important. For most people, and this is
included in legislation of some countries, animal welfare pertains to
vertebrates and particularly to mammals and birds. There is less certainty that
fish, reptiles and amphibians are sentient, although increasing scientific
evidence supports the potential for these animals to experience emotional
states. There is still greater uncertainty around invertebrate species but a
great deal of discussion and debate continues, with the case being made for
crustacean and insects to show behaviours that could be interpreted as showing
evidence of cognitive processes and emotional responses.
In quality of life terminology this
continuum is seen to vary from a good life, through a life worth living to a
life not worth living (Figure 1), where the animal may be in such great
suffering it might be preferable, to the animal, for it not to be alive. In
this framework we might consider the entirety of the animals’ life to date. So
short term compromises to welfare, such as experience of pain or disease, might
be outweighed by an overall good quality of life throughout much of the animals
lifetime. However, where an animal is continually in pain, or suffers daily
from excessive confinement or an inability to carry out much or any of the
things it may wish to achieve then the quality of life for the animal may be
very poor indeed. In general, concerns for animal welfare have focused mostly
on the negative end of the spectrum, with animal welfare being considered, for
some, as a negative quality. Only very recently is greater consideration and
emphasis being placed on the positive welfare end of the scale, and a good
quality of life seen as a desirable and achievable end point for animals.
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Q.2 How animal
welfare is viewed from the animal rights perspective?
Animal rights, animal liberation or justice for animals are
largely concepts based in ethical or philosophical thinking that focuses on the
individual animal, and demand equality of treatment for animals with humans on
the basis that each are sentient. These principles suggest that equal rights or
consideration of their interests should be given to all sentient beings. Thus
justice and equality of treatment are very important in thinking about animal
rights. However, this thinking does not really consider animal care or
husbandry to be important or relevant concepts in the treatment of animals.
Cruelty can be defined as the deliberate or malicious
infliction of mental or physical pain on animals, and indifference to their
suffering. Cruelty, or animal abuse, can be by commission or by omission:
Commission: Cruelty, or animal abuse, can be by commission,
where there is a deliberate act, such as physically beating an animal.
Omission: Cruelty can also be an omission that is by failing
to act, such as not providing an animal with food or water.
Cruelty undoubtedly has an impact on the welfare state of the
animal, but the absence of cruelty is not sufficient for animal welfare to be
good. Thus although animal abuse and animal welfare are associated, they are
not the same thing: animal welfare considers the positive and neutral aspects
of an animal’s life, as well as the absence of negative states.
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Q.3 Explain how good welfare and an animal living a natural life are related to one another?
An important part of animal welfare that provides the
bridging concept discussed in the previous unit is the scientific evidence that
supports decisions about how animals should be kept and managed. Animal welfare
concerns are therefore concerns about the biological functioning or
environmental coping of an animal, concerns about the naturalness of the
environment and behaviours of the animal and are concerns about what it feels
or experiences.
Naturalness This welfare component suggests that good welfare
depends on the animal being able to live a ‘natural’ life and to be able to
express its evolved behaviour patterns. Some behaviours have evolved as an
adaptation to deal with an adverse situation (distress calls in isolation,
fleeing from a predator and so on). The animal does not ‘need’ to express these
behaviours if they are not required – we do not need to expose an animal to a
predator, for example, so that it can express these behaviours for the animal
to be in good welfare. Thus, performance of the whole behavioural range is not
considered necessary for good welfare, only those parts of it that the animal
perceives to be important. In using this definition of welfare it can be hard
to determine precisely what is natural in the animal’s behaviour and what
constitutes a natural environment for a particular species. A parallel concept
to the ‘natural-living’ view of animal welfare is the concept of animal
integrity. These ideas suggest we should not infringe the animal’s physical
wholeness (such as performing procedures like castration or tail-docking), and
that we should create conditions where the animal has a life that accords with
their species-specific capacities and adaptation patterns: conditions where the
animal can be fulfilled and flourish.
Q.4 Why we need to take an evidence-based approach to animal
welfare?
Animal welfare can be an emotional subject, and an area where
many different groups or interested parties may have an opinion. Sometimes
these opinions can be motivated by anthropomorphism, where we might think that
an animal cannot be happy because we ourselves would not be happy in the
situation, or we might think that the animal is doing well because we do not
appreciate that the animal may require things that are not present in the
environment.
Example: Let’s consider a specific example of
domestic chicken. You may be aware that domestic chickens have been developed
from wild jungle fowl. In their natural environment jungle fowl use dust or
sand to clean their feathers (dustbathing), and will roost at night in trees –
for rest, sleep, escape from predation etc. Jungle fowl are a predated animal,
so these behaviours help to keep their feathers in good condition, which means
they can fly up into the trees at night to avoid foxes or leopards that would
kill a jungle fowl. When chickens are domesticated, they are protected from such
predators, generally, so producers of eggs might conclude that access to dust
or sand to dustbathe, and a structure on which to perch at night are no longer
important. However, experiments have shown that chickens choose to go into a
compartment with a perch or an area in which they can dustbathe if offered a
choice. In addition, they will push hard against a weighted door to get access
and show altered behaviours and biological function (indicating a stress
response) if they are not able to use these resources. These data therefore
provide evidence that chickens want to be able to dustbathe and perch, even
without predators being present, and that their welfare is reduced when they
are not able to perform these behaviours.
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Q.5 Write in general terms, what do we mean by normal behaviour?
Abnormal behaviour is typically regarded as behaviour that
deviates in some way from its natural form (or does not occur in the wild) and
is problematic in some way. It results from a mismatch between the stimuli
present in the captive environment and the animal’s ability to cope with the
stimuli through mechanisms that it has acquired through evolution or lifetime
development.
Two examples may illustrate how this mismatch may come about
for a variety of reasons:
Example 1: The first is the problem of savaging whereby a mother
pig (sow) attacks her own piglets shortly after their birth. This behaviour has
never been observed in the wild. It is likely to result from many causes, one
of which may be preventing captive sows from performing the behaviours that
would normally lead up to birth in the wild such as nest building.
Example 2: A second example is feather pecking in which
laying hens pull at and remove the feathers of flock members. This behaviour
occurs in barren environments where normal foraging behaviour is constrained by
a lack of suitable stimuli to peck at. Under these conditions, the stimuli that
allows the fullest expression of foraging behaviour is the plumage of other
birds that then becomes the target of pecks. To understand the importance of
nest building behaviour and the occurrence of feather pecking, it is helpful to
invoke a concept called ‘behavioural needs’.
In these example, the captive environment may have removed
the functions of the behaviours to promote fitness (foraging and nest building
are not needed for survival) but not the motivation that leads to the
performance of the behaviour. Therefore, to understand whether an animal has a
‘need’ to perform a behaviour, we must assess how hard it will work to perform
the behaviour itself rather than consider only the fitness consequences
attached to the behaviour in the wild. We can for example, quantify how much
work a pig would be willing to perform in order to access material with which
to construct a nest.
Q.6 What are the causes of abnormal behaviour?
Q.7 What is the focus of animal welfare as a concern more recently?
Q.8 How do biological adaptations allow animals to cope well with environmental challenges?
Q.9 How can animal performance be assessed in a new environment from a welfare perspective?
Q.10 How did the book ‘Animal Machines’ contribute to the development of the Five Freedoms?
Q.11 Describe three key aspects of the Five Freedoms
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Q.12 Write the difference between malnutrition and hunger.
Hunger: Hunger can occur when animals are unable to meet
their dietary requirements for maintenance and growth from the food available
to them in their environment in the following ways:
Grazing animals when there is insufficient forage to satisfy
their requirements. In housed systems where animals are fed inadequate
quantities of food. Deliberately, when animals may be knowingly fed less than
requirements. Management factors, such as lack of knowledge about the specific
dietary needs of an animal. Economic issues such that it is too expensive to
feed all animals to requirements
Inadequate trough or feeder space in confined animals, which
can lead to competition and a reduced intake in subordinate animals. In
breeding animals which are fed a low ration to prevent excessive growth and
consequent health problems.
Example: Parent stock of meat chickens, or broiler breeders,
have the same genetics for high rates of growth as the broiler chickens that
will go on to become meat. However, if they are allowed to eat to appetite they
will become excessively heavy, which will interfere with their ability to
breed, and can cause lameness and metabolic disorders. These birds are kept on
a very restrictive diet for much of their lives to prevent this fast growth.
Although this feeding practice can reduce the incidence of health problems
arising from becoming very heavy, this does mean that these birds are at risk
of hunger for much of their lives.
Malnutrition: Malnutrition can occur when animals are not
provided with the right quality of food to meet their specific needs. This
differs from hunger in that the animals may be able to eat a sufficient
quantity of food to be satiated, but the quality of the food is insufficient.
This may be, for example, because the diet is inadequate for protein, even if
it contains sufficient carbohydrate or fat, or because important micronutrients
or trace elements are not present. The requirements of animals can vary during
different life stages, from the very rapid growth of young animals, to the
specific needs of pregnant and lactating animals. Thus, malnutrition can occur
due to lack of knowledge, as well as an inability to provide a diet of
sufficient quality.
Q.13 What is the principle challenge that group living brings that is not faced by an independent individual?
Q.14 Write the meaning of resource holding potential (RHP)
Q.15 How do predictable human actions influence health and welfare of animals?
Predictability, or ‘the ability to predict’ what is going to
happen, allows the individual to prepare or anticipate on what is going to
come. Example: If the owner of a dog is always nice when he comes home and
greets the dog, the animal will run towards the door and show a positive
behavioural response to the human. If the owner is always angry when arriving
home and he kicks the dog badly, then the animal will run away and hide as soon
as he hears the owner. However, if the owner sometimes behaves nicely upon
returning home but sometimes unexpectedly kicks the dog then the animal will
not know when to approach or when to hide. As a consequence, the animal is
likely to experience more stress than a dog which is always kicked.
Research experiments in rats showed that rats that are given
electric shocks at irregular times developed severe gastric ulcers. However,
when the rat could predict the occurrence of the electric shock, by seeing a
light flashing up just before receiving the shock, they had fewer ulcers. When
the action of the human is predictable, the receiver of the behaviour (the
animal) can prepare in the best manner to sustain its health and welfare. This
preparation may include safeguarding itself (e.g. hiding) from receiving
harmful behaviour or relaxation when having the certainty of knowing that feed
will be given every day. This preparation not only affects behaviour and
welfare but also closely relates to physiology and thus health. If an
individual knows when it will be able to eat and drink, the metabolism adjusts
to these timings to optimize digestion, resulting in a better uptake of
nutrients.
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